Cutis

Traction alopecia (TA)--one of the most common types of hair loss in Black women (although not exclusive to Black women)--is reversible when early corrective measures are taken; if chronic tension continues, however, permanent scarring alopecia ensues. Dermatologists can prevent worsening of this distressing hair loss. Due to a dearth of training among dermatologists in conditions occurring in patients with tightly coiled hair, it is imperative to add practical methods to the body of dermatology literature, with the goal of enhancing cultural humility.  

Hairstyling among Black women often is a lengthy process and often results in relationship bonding with the hair care giver, in turn imparting hair care traditions to the next generation. Therefore, a well-received discussion about TA prevention not only has an impact on the patient but potentially on a multigenerational family of women and friends. We present a memory aid for discussing TA, with a focus on cultural humility and patient-centered communication. 

Factors contributing to the risk of TA are hairstyles and hair care practices commonly used in Black individuals, including braids, locs, weaves, wigs, and chemical straightening.¹ These styles often are worn to increase hair manageability or as a creative expression of beauty. 

Discussing TA can be distressing for physicians and patients, especially in the setting of hair texture discordance. In a study that surveyed Black patients' perception of their dermatologic care both in and outside of a skin of color clinic, 71% of respondents (12/17) said that they prefer a race-concordant dermatologist. Some respondents reported that non-skin of color clinic dermatologists examined their hair with the end of a pencil or not at all; patients interpreted these interactions as disrespectful and racially insensitive.² Another study found that only 30.2% (19/63) of dermatology chief residents and 12.2% (5/41) of program directors reported a specific rotation during which residents gained experience treating skin of color patients.³ 

Due to a paucity of training in diagnosing and treating patients with tightly coiled hair who experience hair loss, some physicians might feel uncomfortable caring for patients who have tightly coiled hair. Although many Black patients prefer to see a race-concordant dermatologist because of their perceived cultural competence and shared experience, there is a paucity of Black dermatologists to see all patients who have tightly coiled hair.⁴ Therefore, all dermatologists should become skilled and comfortable discussing and treating TA in patients with all hair types. 

METHOD FOR COUNSELING 

The following scenarios are a guide to begin closing the competency gap in counseling about TA, using a "compliment, discuss, and suggest" method.  

Scenario 1 
A Black woman presents with a concern of "thinning edges" (a popular term on social media for TA). A hair-discordant dermatologist tells her, first, that she has TA caused by wearing tight hairstyles and, second, that the treatment is to stop wearing tight braids and weaves and to discontinue chemical relaxers. The dermatologist then leaves the room.  

The Patient's Perspective
It is not uncommon for the patient to have feelings of frustration about how they will style their hair, especially if they are unfamiliar with caring for their hair in its natural state.⁵ Also, they might have feelings of dismay that the loving childhood hair care giver, often their mother or grandmother, unintentionally harmed them with a tight style. They also might feel betrayed by their hairstylist, who might not have encouraged them to see a dermatologist, or who continued to oblige their request for a high-risk hairstyle. The patient might feel uncomfortable communicating the dermatologist's new recommendations to their hair care team, who also are part of her emotional support system. The patient also might think that the hair-discordant dermatologist has no idea what they "go through" with their hair.  

"Compliment, Discuss, and Suggest" Counseling
Traction alopecia is caused by tight hairstyles that often hurt when they are put in as tight braids, weaves, and ponytails.⁶ Risk increases if tight styles are applied to chemically straightened hair.¹ Braids, sew-in weaves, and wigs with adhesive sometimes are referred to as protective styles. However, these styles can still lead to TA due to excessive tension.  

• Compliment: "Your hair looks great. I know that you get many compliments."  
• Discuss: "However, some of the styles might be increasing your risk for hair loss. Our goal is to preserve as many of your follicles as possible."  
• Suggest: "Let's start by loosening the hairstyle if it is painful when being applied. Pain means inflammation, which can lead to scarring of hair follicles and worsening of hair loss." 

Using pronouns such as we, us, and our is intentional. Doing so signals that the dermatologist is a partner with the patient in the treatment of TA. Starting with a simple initial recommendation gives the patient time to process the common thoughts highlighted in The Patient's Perspective section.⁶  

Scenario 2 
A Black child (we'll call her "Janet") is accompanied by her mother for follow-up of mild atopic dermatitis on the body and scalp. When the dermatologist examines the patient's scalp, they note that she has the fringe sign--retained short hairs along the frontal hairline--that is consistent with TA. Janet's hair is adorned with 2 tight ponytails in the front with colorful decorative balls on ponytail ties, barrettes, and 6 cornrow braids in the back with plastic beads on the ends. The dermatologist counsels about the atopic dermatitis and leaves the room.  

"Compliment, Discuss, and Suggest" Counseling
The use of tight decorative balls on ponytail ties and numerous plastic beads increases the amount of tension and weight on the hair, which may lead to a higher risk for developing traction alopecia.⁶ It is quite common for children of African descent to wear hair adornments. Proper counseling regarding their use and possible implications is essential. 

1. Compliment: "You're doing a great job controlling the atopic dermatitis, which can cause Janet's scalp to be dry. Also, her hair is beautiful--it looks like you spent a lot of time on her hair. And Janet, I like the color of your barrettes." 
2. Discuss: "Mom, I just noticed that a few areas look tight. Let's look together." (The dermatologist points out areas where the scalp is tented upward due to traction, follicular pustules or papules, or the frontal fringe sign.) "I'm on a mission to #savetheedges because we want Janet to grow up with full edges." (Again, loss of "edges" refers to TA.) 
3. Suggest: "When you do Janet's hair, it's OK if every hair is not in place. In fact, making styles look and feel 1 or 2 weeks old will lessen tension on the scalp. Remove Janet's hair ties to release tension when she is at home and while she's sleeping, if possible. Every minute that the hair is loose really does help."⁶  

The Parent's Perspective

All parents take pride in their children. In some Black communities, mothers are judged by how well they manage and style their children's hair. Some people might even suggest that parents of children with nonstyled, tightly coiled hair are not fit parents. Anthropologist Sylvia Boone, PhD, found that among the Mende tribe in Sierra Leone, "unkempt, 'neglected,' or 'messy' hair implied that a woman either had loose morals or was insane."⁷ 

Braids are commonly worn by people of African heritage for a variety of reasons, including ease of manageability, to decrease daily hairstyling time, and as an expression of creativity. Intricate neat hairstyles, despite the risk of pain and TA, are perceived as a sign that the child is cared for and loved.⁶  

FINAL THOUGHTS 

Patient-centered communication is associated with the patient trusting the physician, which is especially important in race-discordant physician-patient relationships. A study found that patient-physician race discordance led to shorter visits, a lower rating of patient affect, and less shared decision-making.⁸ Moreover, in a study of primary care clinicians, implicit bias was found to affect communication patterns and social interactions, impacting patient outcomes. Downstream effects of racial bias resulted in less speaking, smiling, and social comments when interacting with Black patients.⁹  

These findings highlight the need to address interpersonal barriers to effective communication in race-discordant patient-physician dyads. A history of segregated neighborhoods and schools might contribute to structural barriers, resulting in lack of familiarity with cultural norms outside one's culture, which might globally perpetuate poor communication and patient outcomes.  

The "compliment, discuss, and suggest" method might lead to more positive physician-patient encounters by having the dermatologist focus on empathetically understanding the patient's perspective.¹⁰ Effective communication, understanding cultural hair care practices, and a thorough scalp examination are paramount for patients with tightly coiled hair.¹¹ Early intervention in TA is crucial and involves partnering with patients and parents to amend high-risk hairstyling routines with cultural humility. 

Traction alopecia (TA)--one of the most common types of hair loss in Black women (although not exclusive to Black women)--is reversible when early corrective measures are taken; if chronic tension continues, however, permanent scarring alopecia ensues. Dermatologists can prevent worsening of this distressing hair loss. Due to a dearth of training among dermatologists in conditions occurring in patients with tightly coiled hair, it is imperative to add practical methods to the body of dermatology literature, with the goal of enhancing cultural humility.  

Hairstyling among Black women often is a lengthy process and often results in relationship bonding with the hair care giver, in turn imparting hair care traditions to the next generation. Therefore, a well-received discussion about TA prevention not only has an impact on the patient but potentially on a multigenerational family of women and friends. We present a memory aid for discussing TA, with a focus on cultural humility and patient-centered communication. 

Factors contributing to the risk of TA are hairstyles and hair care practices commonly used in Black individuals, including braids, locs, weaves, wigs, and chemical straightening.¹ These styles often are worn to increase hair manageability or as a creative expression of beauty. 

Discussing TA can be distressing for physicians and patients, especially in the setting of hair texture discordance. In a study that surveyed Black patients' perception of their dermatologic care both in and outside of a skin of color clinic, 71% of respondents (12/17) said that they prefer a race-concordant dermatologist. Some respondents reported that non-skin of color clinic dermatologists examined their hair with the end of a pencil or not at all; patients interpreted these interactions as disrespectful and racially insensitive.² Another study found that only 30.2% (19/63) of dermatology chief residents and 12.2% (5/41) of program directors reported a specific rotation during which residents gained experience treating skin of color patients.³ 

Due to a paucity of training in diagnosing and treating patients with tightly coiled hair who experience hair loss, some physicians might feel uncomfortable caring for patients who have tightly coiled hair. Although many Black patients prefer to see a race-concordant dermatologist because of their perceived cultural competence and shared experience, there is a paucity of Black dermatologists to see all patients who have tightly coiled hair.⁴ Therefore, all dermatologists should become skilled and comfortable discussing and treating TA in patients with all hair types. 

METHOD FOR COUNSELING 

The following scenarios are a guide to begin closing the competency gap in counseling about TA, using a "compliment, discuss, and suggest" method.  

Scenario 1 
A Black woman presents with a concern of "thinning edges" (a popular term on social media for TA). A hair-discordant dermatologist tells her, first, that she has TA caused by wearing tight hairstyles and, second, that the treatment is to stop wearing tight braids and weaves and to discontinue chemical relaxers. The dermatologist then leaves the room.  

The Patient's Perspective
It is not uncommon for the patient to have feelings of frustration about how they will style their hair, especially if they are unfamiliar with caring for their hair in its natural state.⁵ Also, they might have feelings of dismay that the loving childhood hair care giver, often their mother or grandmother, unintentionally harmed them with a tight style. They also might feel betrayed by their hairstylist, who might not have encouraged them to see a dermatologist, or who continued to oblige their request for a high-risk hairstyle. The patient might feel uncomfortable communicating the dermatologist's new recommendations to their hair care team, who also are part of her emotional support system. The patient also might think that the hair-discordant dermatologist has no idea what they "go through" with their hair.  

"Compliment, Discuss, and Suggest" Counseling
Traction alopecia is caused by tight hairstyles that often hurt when they are put in as tight braids, weaves, and ponytails.⁶ Risk increases if tight styles are applied to chemically straightened hair.¹ Braids, sew-in weaves, and wigs with adhesive sometimes are referred to as protective styles. However, these styles can still lead to TA due to excessive tension.  

• Compliment: "Your hair looks great. I know that you get many compliments."  
• Discuss: "However, some of the styles might be increasing your risk for hair loss. Our goal is to preserve as many of your follicles as possible."  
• Suggest: "Let's start by loosening the hairstyle if it is painful when being applied. Pain means inflammation, which can lead to scarring of hair follicles and worsening of hair loss." 

Using pronouns such as we, us, and our is intentional. Doing so signals that the dermatologist is a partner with the patient in the treatment of TA. Starting with a simple initial recommendation gives the patient time to process the common thoughts highlighted in The Patient's Perspective section.⁶  

Scenario 2 
A Black child (we'll call her "Janet") is accompanied by her mother for follow-up of mild atopic dermatitis on the body and scalp. When the dermatologist examines the patient's scalp, they note that she has the fringe sign--retained short hairs along the frontal hairline--that is consistent with TA. Janet's hair is adorned with 2 tight ponytails in the front with colorful decorative balls on ponytail ties, barrettes, and 6 cornrow braids in the back with plastic beads on the ends. The dermatologist counsels about the atopic dermatitis and leaves the room.  

"Compliment, Discuss, and Suggest" Counseling
The use of tight decorative balls on ponytail ties and numerous plastic beads increases the amount of tension and weight on the hair, which may lead to a higher risk for developing traction alopecia.⁶ It is quite common for children of African descent to wear hair adornments. Proper counseling regarding their use and possible implications is essential. 

1. Compliment: "You're doing a great job controlling the atopic dermatitis, which can cause Janet's scalp to be dry. Also, her hair is beautiful--it looks like you spent a lot of time on her hair. And Janet, I like the color of your barrettes." 
2. Discuss: "Mom, I just noticed that a few areas look tight. Let's look together." (The dermatologist points out areas where the scalp is tented upward due to traction, follicular pustules or papules, or the frontal fringe sign.) "I'm on a mission to #savetheedges because we want Janet to grow up with full edges." (Again, loss of "edges" refers to TA.) 
3. Suggest: "When you do Janet's hair, it's OK if every hair is not in place. In fact, making styles look and feel 1 or 2 weeks old will lessen tension on the scalp. Remove Janet's hair ties to release tension when she is at home and while she's sleeping, if possible. Every minute that the hair is loose really does help."⁶  

The Parent's Perspective

All parents take pride in their children. In some Black communities, mothers are judged by how well they manage and style their children's hair. Some people might even suggest that parents of children with nonstyled, tightly coiled hair are not fit parents. Anthropologist Sylvia Boone, PhD, found that among the Mende tribe in Sierra Leone, "unkempt, 'neglected,' or 'messy' hair implied that a woman either had loose morals or was insane."⁷ 

Braids are commonly worn by people of African heritage for a variety of reasons, including ease of manageability, to decrease daily hairstyling time, and as an expression of creativity. Intricate neat hairstyles, despite the risk of pain and TA, are perceived as a sign that the child is cared for and loved.⁶  

FINAL THOUGHTS 

Patient-centered communication is associated with the patient trusting the physician, which is especially important in race-discordant physician-patient relationships. A study found that patient-physician race discordance led to shorter visits, a lower rating of patient affect, and less shared decision-making.⁸ Moreover, in a study of primary care clinicians, implicit bias was found to affect communication patterns and social interactions, impacting patient outcomes. Downstream effects of racial bias resulted in less speaking, smiling, and social comments when interacting with Black patients.⁹  

These findings highlight the need to address interpersonal barriers to effective communication in race-discordant patient-physician dyads. A history of segregated neighborhoods and schools might contribute to structural barriers, resulting in lack of familiarity with cultural norms outside one's culture, which might globally perpetuate poor communication and patient outcomes.  

The "compliment, discuss, and suggest" method might lead to more positive physician-patient encounters by having the dermatologist focus on empathetically understanding the patient's perspective.¹⁰ Effective communication, understanding cultural hair care practices, and a thorough scalp examination are paramount for patients with tightly coiled hair.¹¹ Early intervention in TA is crucial and involves partnering with patients and parents to amend high-risk hairstyling routines with cultural humility. 

Traction alopecia (TA)--one of the most common types of hair loss in Black women (although not exclusive to Black women)--is reversible when early corrective measures are taken; if chronic tension continues, however, permanent scarring alopecia ensues. Dermatologists can prevent worsening of this distressing hair loss. Due to a dearth of training among dermatologists in conditions occurring in patients with tightly coiled hair, it is imperative to add practical methods to the body of dermatology literature, with the goal of enhancing cultural humility.  

Hairstyling among Black women often is a lengthy process and often results in relationship bonding with the hair care giver, in turn imparting hair care traditions to the next generation. Therefore, a well-received discussion about TA prevention not only has an impact on the patient but potentially on a multigenerational family of women and friends. We present a memory aid for discussing TA, with a focus on cultural humility and patient-centered communication. 

Factors contributing to the risk of TA are hairstyles and hair care practices commonly used in Black individuals, including braids, locs, weaves, wigs, and chemical straightening.¹ These styles often are worn to increase hair manageability or as a creative expression of beauty. 

Discussing TA can be distressing for physicians and patients, especially in the setting of hair texture discordance. In a study that surveyed Black patients' perception of their dermatologic care both in and outside of a skin of color clinic, 71% of respondents (12/17) said that they prefer a race-concordant dermatologist. Some respondents reported that non-skin of color clinic dermatologists examined their hair with the end of a pencil or not at all; patients interpreted these interactions as disrespectful and racially insensitive.² Another study found that only 30.2% (19/63) of dermatology chief residents and 12.2% (5/41) of program directors reported a specific rotation during which residents gained experience treating skin of color patients.³ 

Due to a paucity of training in diagnosing and treating patients with tightly coiled hair who experience hair loss, some physicians might feel uncomfortable caring for patients who have tightly coiled hair. Although many Black patients prefer to see a race-concordant dermatologist because of their perceived cultural competence and shared experience, there is a paucity of Black dermatologists to see all patients who have tightly coiled hair.⁴ Therefore, all dermatologists should become skilled and comfortable discussing and treating TA in patients with all hair types. 

METHOD FOR COUNSELING 

The following scenarios are a guide to begin closing the competency gap in counseling about TA, using a "compliment, discuss, and suggest" method.  

Scenario 1 
A Black woman presents with a concern of "thinning edges" (a popular term on social media for TA). A hair-discordant dermatologist tells her, first, that she has TA caused by wearing tight hairstyles and, second, that the treatment is to stop wearing tight braids and weaves and to discontinue chemical relaxers. The dermatologist then leaves the room.  

The Patient's Perspective
It is not uncommon for the patient to have feelings of frustration about how they will style their hair, especially if they are unfamiliar with caring for their hair in its natural state.⁵ Also, they might have feelings of dismay that the loving childhood hair care giver, often their mother or grandmother, unintentionally harmed them with a tight style. They also might feel betrayed by their hairstylist, who might not have encouraged them to see a dermatologist, or who continued to oblige their request for a high-risk hairstyle. The patient might feel uncomfortable communicating the dermatologist's new recommendations to their hair care team, who also are part of her emotional support system. The patient also might think that the hair-discordant dermatologist has no idea what they "go through" with their hair.  

"Compliment, Discuss, and Suggest" Counseling
Traction alopecia is caused by tight hairstyles that often hurt when they are put in as tight braids, weaves, and ponytails.⁶ Risk increases if tight styles are applied to chemically straightened hair.¹ Braids, sew-in weaves, and wigs with adhesive sometimes are referred to as protective styles. However, these styles can still lead to TA due to excessive tension.  

• Compliment: "Your hair looks great. I know that you get many compliments."  
• Discuss: "However, some of the styles might be increasing your risk for hair loss. Our goal is to preserve as many of your follicles as possible."  
• Suggest: "Let's start by loosening the hairstyle if it is painful when being applied. Pain means inflammation, which can lead to scarring of hair follicles and worsening of hair loss." 

Using pronouns such as we, us, and our is intentional. Doing so signals that the dermatologist is a partner with the patient in the treatment of TA. Starting with a simple initial recommendation gives the patient time to process the common thoughts highlighted in The Patient's Perspective section.⁶  

Scenario 2 
A Black child (we'll call her "Janet") is accompanied by her mother for follow-up of mild atopic dermatitis on the body and scalp. When the dermatologist examines the patient's scalp, they note that she has the fringe sign--retained short hairs along the frontal hairline--that is consistent with TA. Janet's hair is adorned with 2 tight ponytails in the front with colorful decorative balls on ponytail ties, barrettes, and 6 cornrow braids in the back with plastic beads on the ends. The dermatologist counsels about the atopic dermatitis and leaves the room.  

"Compliment, Discuss, and Suggest" Counseling
The use of tight decorative balls on ponytail ties and numerous plastic beads increases the amount of tension and weight on the hair, which may lead to a higher risk for developing traction alopecia.⁶ It is quite common for children of African descent to wear hair adornments. Proper counseling regarding their use and possible implications is essential. 

1. Compliment: "You're doing a great job controlling the atopic dermatitis, which can cause Janet's scalp to be dry. Also, her hair is beautiful--it looks like you spent a lot of time on her hair. And Janet, I like the color of your barrettes." 
2. Discuss: "Mom, I just noticed that a few areas look tight. Let's look together." (The dermatologist points out areas where the scalp is tented upward due to traction, follicular pustules or papules, or the frontal fringe sign.) "I'm on a mission to #savetheedges because we want Janet to grow up with full edges." (Again, loss of "edges" refers to TA.) 
3. Suggest: "When you do Janet's hair, it's OK if every hair is not in place. In fact, making styles look and feel 1 or 2 weeks old will lessen tension on the scalp. Remove Janet's hair ties to release tension when she is at home and while she's sleeping, if possible. Every minute that the hair is loose really does help."⁶  

The Parent's Perspective

All parents take pride in their children. In some Black communities, mothers are judged by how well they manage and style their children's hair. Some people might even suggest that parents of children with nonstyled, tightly coiled hair are not fit parents. Anthropologist Sylvia Boone, PhD, found that among the Mende tribe in Sierra Leone, "unkempt, 'neglected,' or 'messy' hair implied that a woman either had loose morals or was insane."⁷ 

Braids are commonly worn by people of African heritage for a variety of reasons, including ease of manageability, to decrease daily hairstyling time, and as an expression of creativity. Intricate neat hairstyles, despite the risk of pain and TA, are perceived as a sign that the child is cared for and loved.⁶  

FINAL THOUGHTS 

Patient-centered communication is associated with the patient trusting the physician, which is especially important in race-discordant physician-patient relationships. A study found that patient-physician race discordance led to shorter visits, a lower rating of patient affect, and less shared decision-making.⁸ Moreover, in a study of primary care clinicians, implicit bias was found to affect communication patterns and social interactions, impacting patient outcomes. Downstream effects of racial bias resulted in less speaking, smiling, and social comments when interacting with Black patients.⁹  

These findings highlight the need to address interpersonal barriers to effective communication in race-discordant patient-physician dyads. A history of segregated neighborhoods and schools might contribute to structural barriers, resulting in lack of familiarity with cultural norms outside one's culture, which might globally perpetuate poor communication and patient outcomes.  

The "compliment, discuss, and suggest" method might lead to more positive physician-patient encounters by having the dermatologist focus on empathetically understanding the patient's perspective.¹⁰ Effective communication, understanding cultural hair care practices, and a thorough scalp examination are paramount for patients with tightly coiled hair.¹¹ Early intervention in TA is crucial and involves partnering with patients and parents to amend high-risk hairstyling routines with cultural humility. 

The Comparison

A Elbow and forearm with erythematous, well-demarcated, pink plaques with mild micaceous scale in a 42-year-old White woman.

B Elbow and forearm with violaceous, well-demarcated plaques with micaceous scale and hyperpigmented patches around the active plaques in a 58-year-old Black man.

Epidemiology
Psoriasis prevalence in the United States has been estimated at 3.7%.^1-3 If broken down by race or ethnicity, the prevalence of psoriasis varies: 2.5% to 3.7% in White adults^1-4; 1.3% to 2% in Black adults^1-4; 1.6% in Hispanics/ other adults^1-3; 1% in children overall; 0.29% in White children_^1,5; and 0.06% in Black children.^1,5

Key clinical features in people with darker skin tones include:

• plaques that may appear more violaceous in color instead of pink or erythematous
• higher body surface area of involvement4 and thicker, more scaly plaques⁶
• increased likelihood of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH).

Worth noting
Although individuals of all skin tones may experience the psychosocial impact of psoriasis, quality-of-life measures have been found to be worse in those with skin of color (SOC) compared to White patients.^1,4 This may be due to the lingering PIH and hypopigmentation that occurs even after inflammatory plaques are treated. Of course, lack of access to care contributes to greater disease burden and more devastating psychological impact.

Health disparity highlight
Psoriasis may be underreported and underdiagnosed in individuals with SOC, as factors contributing to health care disparities may play a role, such as access to health care in general,^1,7 and access to clinicians proficient in diagnosing cutaneous diseases in SOC may be delayed.⁸

Biologic medications are used less often in Black patients than in White patients, despite biologic medications being very efficacious for treatment of psoriasis.^1,9,10

The Comparison

A Elbow and forearm with erythematous, well-demarcated, pink plaques with mild micaceous scale in a 42-year-old White woman.

B Elbow and forearm with violaceous, well-demarcated plaques with micaceous scale and hyperpigmented patches around the active plaques in a 58-year-old Black man.

Epidemiology
Psoriasis prevalence in the United States has been estimated at 3.7%.^1-3 If broken down by race or ethnicity, the prevalence of psoriasis varies: 2.5% to 3.7% in White adults^1-4; 1.3% to 2% in Black adults^1-4; 1.6% in Hispanics/ other adults^1-3; 1% in children overall; 0.29% in White children_^1,5; and 0.06% in Black children.^1,5

Key clinical features in people with darker skin tones include:

• plaques that may appear more violaceous in color instead of pink or erythematous
• higher body surface area of involvement4 and thicker, more scaly plaques⁶
• increased likelihood of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH).

Worth noting
Although individuals of all skin tones may experience the psychosocial impact of psoriasis, quality-of-life measures have been found to be worse in those with skin of color (SOC) compared to White patients.^1,4 This may be due to the lingering PIH and hypopigmentation that occurs even after inflammatory plaques are treated. Of course, lack of access to care contributes to greater disease burden and more devastating psychological impact.

Health disparity highlight
Psoriasis may be underreported and underdiagnosed in individuals with SOC, as factors contributing to health care disparities may play a role, such as access to health care in general,^1,7 and access to clinicians proficient in diagnosing cutaneous diseases in SOC may be delayed.⁸

Biologic medications are used less often in Black patients than in White patients, despite biologic medications being very efficacious for treatment of psoriasis.^1,9,10

The Comparison

A Elbow and forearm with erythematous, well-demarcated, pink plaques with mild micaceous scale in a 42-year-old White woman.

B Elbow and forearm with violaceous, well-demarcated plaques with micaceous scale and hyperpigmented patches around the active plaques in a 58-year-old Black man.

Epidemiology
Psoriasis prevalence in the United States has been estimated at 3.7%.^1-3 If broken down by race or ethnicity, the prevalence of psoriasis varies: 2.5% to 3.7% in White adults^1-4; 1.3% to 2% in Black adults^1-4; 1.6% in Hispanics/ other adults^1-3; 1% in children overall; 0.29% in White children_^1,5; and 0.06% in Black children.^1,5

Key clinical features in people with darker skin tones include:

• plaques that may appear more violaceous in color instead of pink or erythematous
• higher body surface area of involvement4 and thicker, more scaly plaques⁶
• increased likelihood of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH).

Worth noting
Although individuals of all skin tones may experience the psychosocial impact of psoriasis, quality-of-life measures have been found to be worse in those with skin of color (SOC) compared to White patients.^1,4 This may be due to the lingering PIH and hypopigmentation that occurs even after inflammatory plaques are treated. Of course, lack of access to care contributes to greater disease burden and more devastating psychological impact.

Health disparity highlight
Psoriasis may be underreported and underdiagnosed in individuals with SOC, as factors contributing to health care disparities may play a role, such as access to health care in general,^1,7 and access to clinicians proficient in diagnosing cutaneous diseases in SOC may be delayed.⁸

Biologic medications are used less often in Black patients than in White patients, despite biologic medications being very efficacious for treatment of psoriasis.^1,9,10

The Diagnosis: Cystic Panfolliculoma 

Panfolliculoma is a rare tumor of follicular origin.¹ Clinical examination can reveal a papule, nodule, or tumor that typically is mistaken for an epidermal inclusion cyst, trichoepithelioma, or basal cell carcinoma (BCC).² As with other benign follicular neoplasms, it often exhibits a protracted growth pattern.^3,4 Most cases reported in the literature have been shown to occur in the head or neck region. One hypothesis is that separation into the various components of the hair follicle occurs at a higher frequency in areas with a higher hair density such as the face and scalp.⁴ The lesion typically presents in patients aged 20 to 70 years, as in our patient, with cases equally distributed among males and females.^4,5 Neill et al1 reported a rare case of cystic panfolliculoma occurring on the right forearm of a 64-year-old woman. 

As its name suggests, panfolliculoma is exceptional in that it displays features of all segments of the hair follicle, including the infundibulum, isthmus, stem, and bulb.⁶ Although not necessary for diagnosis, immunohistochemical staining can be utilized to identify each hair follicle component on histopathologic examination. Panfolliculoma stains positive for 34βE12 and cytokeratin 5/6, highlighting infundibular and isthmus keratinocytes and the outer root sheath, respectively. Additionally, Ber-EP4 labels germinative cells, while CD34 highlights contiguous fibrotic stroma and trichilemmal areas.^3,4 

In our patient, histopathology revealed a cystic structure that was lined by an infundibular epithelium with a prominent granular layer. Solid collections of basaloid germinative cells that demonstrated peripheral palisading were observed (quiz image [top]). Cells with trichohyalin granules, indicative of inner root sheath differentiation, were encased by matrical cells (quiz image [bottom]).  

Historically, panfolliculomas characteristically have been known to reside in the dermis, with only focal connection to the epidermis, if at all present. Nevertheless, Harris et al⁷ detailed 2 cases that displayed predominant epidermal involvement, defined by the term epidermal panfolliculoma. In a study performed by Shan and Guo,² an additional 9 cases (19 panfolliculomas) were found to have similar findings, for which the term superficial panfolliculoma was suggested. In cases that display a primary epidermal component, common mimickers include tumor of the follicular infundibulum and the reactive process of follicular induction.⁷ 

Cystic panfolliculoma is a rare subtype further characterized as a lesion with distinctive features of a panfolliculoma that arises from a cyst wall composed of the follicular infundibulum.^2,6 The origin of cystic panfolliculoma has not been fully elucidated. It has been hypothesized that the formation of such lesions may arise due to epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. One explanation is that basal cells with stem cell capability may progress into hair follicle structures after communication with underlying dermal cells during invagination of the epidermis, while the epithelial cells not in close proximity to dermal cells maintain stem cell capability.⁸ 

The histologic differential diagnosis of cystic panfolliculoma includes dilated pore of Winer, epidermal inclusion cyst, pilar cyst, trichofolliculoma, folliculosebaceous cystic hamartoma, cystic trichoblastoma, and BCC.⁵ Panfolliculoma can mimic both trichoblastoma and trichoepithelioma on a low-power field; however, the latter follicular tumors lack differentiation to the infundibulum, isthmus, outer root sheath, or hair shaft, as in a panfolliculoma.⁴ Trichoblastoma is composed of germinative hair follicle cells, with differentiation limited to the hair germ and papilla (Figure 1).⁹ Panfolliculoma additionally differs from trichoblastoma by having a more prevalent epithelial factor compared to a more pronounced stromal factor in trichoblastoma.¹ The cystic subtype of trichoblastoma differs from cystic panfolliculoma in that the cyst wall develops from the infundibulum only and has germinative cells protruding outwards from the cyst wall.  

Although BCCs may arise in cystic structures, panfolliculomas can be discerned from this entity by their sharp demarcation, lack of peritumoral clefting, and presence of cytokeratin 20-positive Merkel cells.⁵ Unlike panfolliculoma, the tumor islands in BCC commonly display peripheral palisading of nuclei with a surrounding fibromyxoid stroma (Figure 2). Additionally, BCCs can exhibit crowding of nuclei, atypia, and mitoses.⁶ 

Folliculosebaceous cystic hamartomas and cystic panfolliculomas both contain a cystic structure with differentiation of the cyst wall to the hair follicle. However, folliculosebaceous cystic hamartomas are dilated infundibulocystic configurations that contain sebaceous glands emanating from the cyst wall (Figure 3). Kimura et al¹⁰ described defining features of the mesenchymal component of this follicular tumor, including an increase in fibroplasia, vascularity, and adipose tissue. In addition, the epithelial aspect exhibits clefting among the stroma and uninvolved dermis.⁶

Dilated pore of Winer consists of a cystic opening with connection to the epidermis. The cyst wall resembles the follicular infundibulum, and the cavity is filled with lamellar orthokeratosis (Figure 4).^5,11 Epidermal inclusion cysts also contain a cyst wall that resembles the infundibular epithelium, without differentiation to all segments of the hair follicle. They are lined by a stratified squamous epithelium, retain a granular layer, and contain lamellar keratin within the cyst cavity.^5,12 

In summary, panfolliculoma is a rare benign neoplasm that demonstrates differentiation to each component of the hair follicle structure. Our case demonstrates a unique subtype showcasing cystic changes that infrequently has been described in the literature. 

The Diagnosis: Cystic Panfolliculoma 

Panfolliculoma is a rare tumor of follicular origin.¹ Clinical examination can reveal a papule, nodule, or tumor that typically is mistaken for an epidermal inclusion cyst, trichoepithelioma, or basal cell carcinoma (BCC).² As with other benign follicular neoplasms, it often exhibits a protracted growth pattern.^3,4 Most cases reported in the literature have been shown to occur in the head or neck region. One hypothesis is that separation into the various components of the hair follicle occurs at a higher frequency in areas with a higher hair density such as the face and scalp.⁴ The lesion typically presents in patients aged 20 to 70 years, as in our patient, with cases equally distributed among males and females.^4,5 Neill et al1 reported a rare case of cystic panfolliculoma occurring on the right forearm of a 64-year-old woman. 

As its name suggests, panfolliculoma is exceptional in that it displays features of all segments of the hair follicle, including the infundibulum, isthmus, stem, and bulb.⁶ Although not necessary for diagnosis, immunohistochemical staining can be utilized to identify each hair follicle component on histopathologic examination. Panfolliculoma stains positive for 34βE12 and cytokeratin 5/6, highlighting infundibular and isthmus keratinocytes and the outer root sheath, respectively. Additionally, Ber-EP4 labels germinative cells, while CD34 highlights contiguous fibrotic stroma and trichilemmal areas.^3,4 

In our patient, histopathology revealed a cystic structure that was lined by an infundibular epithelium with a prominent granular layer. Solid collections of basaloid germinative cells that demonstrated peripheral palisading were observed (quiz image [top]). Cells with trichohyalin granules, indicative of inner root sheath differentiation, were encased by matrical cells (quiz image [bottom]).  

Historically, panfolliculomas characteristically have been known to reside in the dermis, with only focal connection to the epidermis, if at all present. Nevertheless, Harris et al⁷ detailed 2 cases that displayed predominant epidermal involvement, defined by the term epidermal panfolliculoma. In a study performed by Shan and Guo,² an additional 9 cases (19 panfolliculomas) were found to have similar findings, for which the term superficial panfolliculoma was suggested. In cases that display a primary epidermal component, common mimickers include tumor of the follicular infundibulum and the reactive process of follicular induction.⁷ 

Cystic panfolliculoma is a rare subtype further characterized as a lesion with distinctive features of a panfolliculoma that arises from a cyst wall composed of the follicular infundibulum.^2,6 The origin of cystic panfolliculoma has not been fully elucidated. It has been hypothesized that the formation of such lesions may arise due to epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. One explanation is that basal cells with stem cell capability may progress into hair follicle structures after communication with underlying dermal cells during invagination of the epidermis, while the epithelial cells not in close proximity to dermal cells maintain stem cell capability.⁸ 

The histologic differential diagnosis of cystic panfolliculoma includes dilated pore of Winer, epidermal inclusion cyst, pilar cyst, trichofolliculoma, folliculosebaceous cystic hamartoma, cystic trichoblastoma, and BCC.⁵ Panfolliculoma can mimic both trichoblastoma and trichoepithelioma on a low-power field; however, the latter follicular tumors lack differentiation to the infundibulum, isthmus, outer root sheath, or hair shaft, as in a panfolliculoma.⁴ Trichoblastoma is composed of germinative hair follicle cells, with differentiation limited to the hair germ and papilla (Figure 1).⁹ Panfolliculoma additionally differs from trichoblastoma by having a more prevalent epithelial factor compared to a more pronounced stromal factor in trichoblastoma.¹ The cystic subtype of trichoblastoma differs from cystic panfolliculoma in that the cyst wall develops from the infundibulum only and has germinative cells protruding outwards from the cyst wall.  

Although BCCs may arise in cystic structures, panfolliculomas can be discerned from this entity by their sharp demarcation, lack of peritumoral clefting, and presence of cytokeratin 20-positive Merkel cells.⁵ Unlike panfolliculoma, the tumor islands in BCC commonly display peripheral palisading of nuclei with a surrounding fibromyxoid stroma (Figure 2). Additionally, BCCs can exhibit crowding of nuclei, atypia, and mitoses.⁶ 

Folliculosebaceous cystic hamartomas and cystic panfolliculomas both contain a cystic structure with differentiation of the cyst wall to the hair follicle. However, folliculosebaceous cystic hamartomas are dilated infundibulocystic configurations that contain sebaceous glands emanating from the cyst wall (Figure 3). Kimura et al¹⁰ described defining features of the mesenchymal component of this follicular tumor, including an increase in fibroplasia, vascularity, and adipose tissue. In addition, the epithelial aspect exhibits clefting among the stroma and uninvolved dermis.⁶

Dilated pore of Winer consists of a cystic opening with connection to the epidermis. The cyst wall resembles the follicular infundibulum, and the cavity is filled with lamellar orthokeratosis (Figure 4).^5,11 Epidermal inclusion cysts also contain a cyst wall that resembles the infundibular epithelium, without differentiation to all segments of the hair follicle. They are lined by a stratified squamous epithelium, retain a granular layer, and contain lamellar keratin within the cyst cavity.^5,12 

In summary, panfolliculoma is a rare benign neoplasm that demonstrates differentiation to each component of the hair follicle structure. Our case demonstrates a unique subtype showcasing cystic changes that infrequently has been described in the literature. 

The Diagnosis: Cystic Panfolliculoma 

Panfolliculoma is a rare tumor of follicular origin.¹ Clinical examination can reveal a papule, nodule, or tumor that typically is mistaken for an epidermal inclusion cyst, trichoepithelioma, or basal cell carcinoma (BCC).² As with other benign follicular neoplasms, it often exhibits a protracted growth pattern.^3,4 Most cases reported in the literature have been shown to occur in the head or neck region. One hypothesis is that separation into the various components of the hair follicle occurs at a higher frequency in areas with a higher hair density such as the face and scalp.⁴ The lesion typically presents in patients aged 20 to 70 years, as in our patient, with cases equally distributed among males and females.^4,5 Neill et al1 reported a rare case of cystic panfolliculoma occurring on the right forearm of a 64-year-old woman. 

As its name suggests, panfolliculoma is exceptional in that it displays features of all segments of the hair follicle, including the infundibulum, isthmus, stem, and bulb.⁶ Although not necessary for diagnosis, immunohistochemical staining can be utilized to identify each hair follicle component on histopathologic examination. Panfolliculoma stains positive for 34βE12 and cytokeratin 5/6, highlighting infundibular and isthmus keratinocytes and the outer root sheath, respectively. Additionally, Ber-EP4 labels germinative cells, while CD34 highlights contiguous fibrotic stroma and trichilemmal areas.^3,4 

In our patient, histopathology revealed a cystic structure that was lined by an infundibular epithelium with a prominent granular layer. Solid collections of basaloid germinative cells that demonstrated peripheral palisading were observed (quiz image [top]). Cells with trichohyalin granules, indicative of inner root sheath differentiation, were encased by matrical cells (quiz image [bottom]).  

Historically, panfolliculomas characteristically have been known to reside in the dermis, with only focal connection to the epidermis, if at all present. Nevertheless, Harris et al⁷ detailed 2 cases that displayed predominant epidermal involvement, defined by the term epidermal panfolliculoma. In a study performed by Shan and Guo,² an additional 9 cases (19 panfolliculomas) were found to have similar findings, for which the term superficial panfolliculoma was suggested. In cases that display a primary epidermal component, common mimickers include tumor of the follicular infundibulum and the reactive process of follicular induction.⁷ 

Cystic panfolliculoma is a rare subtype further characterized as a lesion with distinctive features of a panfolliculoma that arises from a cyst wall composed of the follicular infundibulum.^2,6 The origin of cystic panfolliculoma has not been fully elucidated. It has been hypothesized that the formation of such lesions may arise due to epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. One explanation is that basal cells with stem cell capability may progress into hair follicle structures after communication with underlying dermal cells during invagination of the epidermis, while the epithelial cells not in close proximity to dermal cells maintain stem cell capability.⁸ 

The histologic differential diagnosis of cystic panfolliculoma includes dilated pore of Winer, epidermal inclusion cyst, pilar cyst, trichofolliculoma, folliculosebaceous cystic hamartoma, cystic trichoblastoma, and BCC.⁵ Panfolliculoma can mimic both trichoblastoma and trichoepithelioma on a low-power field; however, the latter follicular tumors lack differentiation to the infundibulum, isthmus, outer root sheath, or hair shaft, as in a panfolliculoma.⁴ Trichoblastoma is composed of germinative hair follicle cells, with differentiation limited to the hair germ and papilla (Figure 1).⁹ Panfolliculoma additionally differs from trichoblastoma by having a more prevalent epithelial factor compared to a more pronounced stromal factor in trichoblastoma.¹ The cystic subtype of trichoblastoma differs from cystic panfolliculoma in that the cyst wall develops from the infundibulum only and has germinative cells protruding outwards from the cyst wall.  

Although BCCs may arise in cystic structures, panfolliculomas can be discerned from this entity by their sharp demarcation, lack of peritumoral clefting, and presence of cytokeratin 20-positive Merkel cells.⁵ Unlike panfolliculoma, the tumor islands in BCC commonly display peripheral palisading of nuclei with a surrounding fibromyxoid stroma (Figure 2). Additionally, BCCs can exhibit crowding of nuclei, atypia, and mitoses.⁶ 

Folliculosebaceous cystic hamartomas and cystic panfolliculomas both contain a cystic structure with differentiation of the cyst wall to the hair follicle. However, folliculosebaceous cystic hamartomas are dilated infundibulocystic configurations that contain sebaceous glands emanating from the cyst wall (Figure 3). Kimura et al¹⁰ described defining features of the mesenchymal component of this follicular tumor, including an increase in fibroplasia, vascularity, and adipose tissue. In addition, the epithelial aspect exhibits clefting among the stroma and uninvolved dermis.⁶

Dilated pore of Winer consists of a cystic opening with connection to the epidermis. The cyst wall resembles the follicular infundibulum, and the cavity is filled with lamellar orthokeratosis (Figure 4).^5,11 Epidermal inclusion cysts also contain a cyst wall that resembles the infundibular epithelium, without differentiation to all segments of the hair follicle. They are lined by a stratified squamous epithelium, retain a granular layer, and contain lamellar keratin within the cyst cavity.^5,12 

In summary, panfolliculoma is a rare benign neoplasm that demonstrates differentiation to each component of the hair follicle structure. Our case demonstrates a unique subtype showcasing cystic changes that infrequently has been described in the literature. 

The Diagnosis: Cutaneous Angiosarcoma 

Biopsy revealed a cellular neoplasm consisting of atypical polygonal cells with a hobnailed appearance, vasoformative characteristics, and rare extravasated erythrocytes. The tumor had an infiltrative growth pattern as demonstrated by dissecting dermal collagen and a poorly defined border with adjacent normal tissue (Figure 1). Immunohistochemistry revealed that the lesion was positive for CD31 and D2-40 (Figure 2) but negative for cytokeratin, CD10, CD68, human herpesvirus 8, CD34, and Melan A, thus confirming the endothelial origin of the tumor cells and the diagnosis of cutaneous angiosarcoma (CAS). The patient was treated with extended surgical excision and radiation therapy. No recurrence or metastasis was found throughout 2 years of follow-up.  

Radical resection with a negative margin is considered the first-line treatment of choice. Although there is a paucity of studies assessing the specific width of surgical margins, application of no less than a 3-cm peripheral margin as well as a clear deep margin is recommended.⁵ Adjuvant radiation therapy also is essential to prevent local recurrence. Patients receiving combination therapy have a superior overall survival rate when compared to those undergoing surgery or radiation therapy alone.⁴  

Cutaneous follicle center lymphoma also may present as 1 or more localized erythematous papules, plaques, and/or nodules, commonly arising on the scalp/forehead or trunk of middle-aged men. Despite being a low-grade lymphoma with a favorable prognosis, it may have a relatively fast growth and locally aggressive course if left untreated. The distinguishing histologic feature is a dense proliferation of neoplastic infiltrates in the dermis, which is separated from the epidermis by the grenz zone.⁶ 

The clinical presentation of cutaneous metastatic carcinomas varies greatly, with 1 or multiple localized or widespread lesions commonly involving the abdominal wall, scalp, and face. The lesions also may mimic benign dermatologic conditions, thus potentially resulting in erroneous clinical diagnosis and delayed therapy of the primary malignancy. Obtaining clinical history is crucial; however, a precise diagnosis may require histologic examination.⁷ 

Atypical fibroxanthoma is a rare superficial cutaneous sarcoma that typically occurs on the head and neck in sun-damaged elderly individuals. Clinically, AFX presents as well-circumscribed red or pink nodules or plaques with or without ulceration, crust, or scale.⁸ Atypical fibroxanthoma lesions usually are small, with a median diameter of 1 cm, while those greater than 2 cm reportedly account for less than 5% of cases.⁹ Atypical fibroxanthoma typically grows rapidly with no pain or discomfort. Histologically, AFX is characterized by a well-circumscribed dermal nodule consisting of pleomorphic spindle cells and multinucleated giant cells that can stain positively for CD10 and procollagen 1.¹⁰ 

Cutaneous pseudolymphoma is a benign inflammatory response process that stimulates polyclonal T- or B-cell lymphoproliferation. The clinical presentation may appear as localized or disseminated flesh-colored or red papules, infiltrated plaques, and nodules.¹¹ Histopathology will show mixtures of B and T cells along with dendritic cells and macrophages, but irregular vascular structure and dissecting dermal collagen are not involved. 

We present an unusual case of CAS with multiple pink nodules on the scalp. Early biopsy of these lesions is important to reach a correct diagnosis and to initiate appropriate treatment. 

The Diagnosis: Cutaneous Angiosarcoma 

Biopsy revealed a cellular neoplasm consisting of atypical polygonal cells with a hobnailed appearance, vasoformative characteristics, and rare extravasated erythrocytes. The tumor had an infiltrative growth pattern as demonstrated by dissecting dermal collagen and a poorly defined border with adjacent normal tissue (Figure 1). Immunohistochemistry revealed that the lesion was positive for CD31 and D2-40 (Figure 2) but negative for cytokeratin, CD10, CD68, human herpesvirus 8, CD34, and Melan A, thus confirming the endothelial origin of the tumor cells and the diagnosis of cutaneous angiosarcoma (CAS). The patient was treated with extended surgical excision and radiation therapy. No recurrence or metastasis was found throughout 2 years of follow-up.  

Radical resection with a negative margin is considered the first-line treatment of choice. Although there is a paucity of studies assessing the specific width of surgical margins, application of no less than a 3-cm peripheral margin as well as a clear deep margin is recommended.⁵ Adjuvant radiation therapy also is essential to prevent local recurrence. Patients receiving combination therapy have a superior overall survival rate when compared to those undergoing surgery or radiation therapy alone.⁴  

Cutaneous follicle center lymphoma also may present as 1 or more localized erythematous papules, plaques, and/or nodules, commonly arising on the scalp/forehead or trunk of middle-aged men. Despite being a low-grade lymphoma with a favorable prognosis, it may have a relatively fast growth and locally aggressive course if left untreated. The distinguishing histologic feature is a dense proliferation of neoplastic infiltrates in the dermis, which is separated from the epidermis by the grenz zone.⁶ 

The clinical presentation of cutaneous metastatic carcinomas varies greatly, with 1 or multiple localized or widespread lesions commonly involving the abdominal wall, scalp, and face. The lesions also may mimic benign dermatologic conditions, thus potentially resulting in erroneous clinical diagnosis and delayed therapy of the primary malignancy. Obtaining clinical history is crucial; however, a precise diagnosis may require histologic examination.⁷ 

Atypical fibroxanthoma is a rare superficial cutaneous sarcoma that typically occurs on the head and neck in sun-damaged elderly individuals. Clinically, AFX presents as well-circumscribed red or pink nodules or plaques with or without ulceration, crust, or scale.⁸ Atypical fibroxanthoma lesions usually are small, with a median diameter of 1 cm, while those greater than 2 cm reportedly account for less than 5% of cases.⁹ Atypical fibroxanthoma typically grows rapidly with no pain or discomfort. Histologically, AFX is characterized by a well-circumscribed dermal nodule consisting of pleomorphic spindle cells and multinucleated giant cells that can stain positively for CD10 and procollagen 1.¹⁰ 

Cutaneous pseudolymphoma is a benign inflammatory response process that stimulates polyclonal T- or B-cell lymphoproliferation. The clinical presentation may appear as localized or disseminated flesh-colored or red papules, infiltrated plaques, and nodules.¹¹ Histopathology will show mixtures of B and T cells along with dendritic cells and macrophages, but irregular vascular structure and dissecting dermal collagen are not involved. 

We present an unusual case of CAS with multiple pink nodules on the scalp. Early biopsy of these lesions is important to reach a correct diagnosis and to initiate appropriate treatment. 

The Diagnosis: Cutaneous Angiosarcoma 

Biopsy revealed a cellular neoplasm consisting of atypical polygonal cells with a hobnailed appearance, vasoformative characteristics, and rare extravasated erythrocytes. The tumor had an infiltrative growth pattern as demonstrated by dissecting dermal collagen and a poorly defined border with adjacent normal tissue (Figure 1). Immunohistochemistry revealed that the lesion was positive for CD31 and D2-40 (Figure 2) but negative for cytokeratin, CD10, CD68, human herpesvirus 8, CD34, and Melan A, thus confirming the endothelial origin of the tumor cells and the diagnosis of cutaneous angiosarcoma (CAS). The patient was treated with extended surgical excision and radiation therapy. No recurrence or metastasis was found throughout 2 years of follow-up.  

Radical resection with a negative margin is considered the first-line treatment of choice. Although there is a paucity of studies assessing the specific width of surgical margins, application of no less than a 3-cm peripheral margin as well as a clear deep margin is recommended.⁵ Adjuvant radiation therapy also is essential to prevent local recurrence. Patients receiving combination therapy have a superior overall survival rate when compared to those undergoing surgery or radiation therapy alone.⁴  

Cutaneous follicle center lymphoma also may present as 1 or more localized erythematous papules, plaques, and/or nodules, commonly arising on the scalp/forehead or trunk of middle-aged men. Despite being a low-grade lymphoma with a favorable prognosis, it may have a relatively fast growth and locally aggressive course if left untreated. The distinguishing histologic feature is a dense proliferation of neoplastic infiltrates in the dermis, which is separated from the epidermis by the grenz zone.⁶ 

The clinical presentation of cutaneous metastatic carcinomas varies greatly, with 1 or multiple localized or widespread lesions commonly involving the abdominal wall, scalp, and face. The lesions also may mimic benign dermatologic conditions, thus potentially resulting in erroneous clinical diagnosis and delayed therapy of the primary malignancy. Obtaining clinical history is crucial; however, a precise diagnosis may require histologic examination.⁷ 

Atypical fibroxanthoma is a rare superficial cutaneous sarcoma that typically occurs on the head and neck in sun-damaged elderly individuals. Clinically, AFX presents as well-circumscribed red or pink nodules or plaques with or without ulceration, crust, or scale.⁸ Atypical fibroxanthoma lesions usually are small, with a median diameter of 1 cm, while those greater than 2 cm reportedly account for less than 5% of cases.⁹ Atypical fibroxanthoma typically grows rapidly with no pain or discomfort. Histologically, AFX is characterized by a well-circumscribed dermal nodule consisting of pleomorphic spindle cells and multinucleated giant cells that can stain positively for CD10 and procollagen 1.¹⁰ 

Cutaneous pseudolymphoma is a benign inflammatory response process that stimulates polyclonal T- or B-cell lymphoproliferation. The clinical presentation may appear as localized or disseminated flesh-colored or red papules, infiltrated plaques, and nodules.¹¹ Histopathology will show mixtures of B and T cells along with dendritic cells and macrophages, but irregular vascular structure and dissecting dermal collagen are not involved. 

We present an unusual case of CAS with multiple pink nodules on the scalp. Early biopsy of these lesions is important to reach a correct diagnosis and to initiate appropriate treatment. 

To the Editor:

We read with great interest the article by Chu et al¹ (Cutis. 2021;107:157-159) and commend them for noting the underrepresentation of skin of color (SOC) in the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) Basic Dermatology Curriculum. The AAD Basic Dermatology Curriculum represents one introductory resource that is ubiquitously utilized by medical students. Herein, we add an analysis of the representation of SOC in the following resources that also comprise the first exposure medical students have to dermatology: Dermatology Clinics Clinical Advisor articles (https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/home/dermatology/dermatology-clinics/), Learn Derm Module (LDM) by VisualDx (https://www.visualdx.com/learnderm/), Lookingbill and Marks’ Principles of Dermatology (6th ed)(LB&M),2 and DermNet NZ (https://dermnetnz.org/). We performed a focused search of the DermNet NZ database for images of the following common dermatologic conditions: acne, rosacea, alopecia, urticaria, arthropod bites, blistering diseases (bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris), connective tissue diseases (dermatomyositis and lupus), inflammatory conditions (atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, and psoriasis), keloids, benign and malignant neoplasms (nevi, seborrheic keratosis, actinic keratosis, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, and melanoma including acral melanoma), bacterial skin infections (impetigo, erysipelas, cellulitis, staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, and syphilis), fungal infections (dermatophyte infections), and viral skin infections (herpes, molluscum contagiosum, varicella-zoster virus, and warts). We classified images as light (Fitzpatrick phototypes I–IV) or dark (Fitzpatrick phototypes V or VI). We excluded images without visible background skin (eg, images of oral mucosa, genitalia, nails, palms and soles, dermoscopic images, histopathologic images).

We found the representation of SOC in the resources we selected to be as follows: Dermatology Clinics Clinical Advisor articles (70/367 or 19%); LDM (26/150 or 17%); LB&M (52/374 or 14%); DermNet NZ (11/310 or 4%). Representation of SOC in common dermatologic conditions such as actinic keratosis, alopecia, rosacea, urticaria, and warts was entirely absent across all resources. Other common skin diseases were represented in only one of the resources we analyzed: acne (represented only in LB&M, where only 3/11 images of acne were depicted in SOC); contact dermatitis (represented only in LB&M, where only 1/6 images of contact dermatitis were depicted in SOC); psoriasis (represented only on DermNet NZ, where only 2/25 images of psoriasis were depicted in SOC); seborrheic keratosis (represented only in LB&M, where 1/2 images of seborrheic keratosis were depicted in SOC). Furthermore, none of the resources we analyzed depicted malignancy (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma) in SOC. Although the poor representation of SOC in malignancies can be explained by the predilection of skin cancer for light skin, other dermatologic conditions that are more common in SOC also were poorly represented in these resources in SOC: acral melanoma, not represented in any of the resources we analyzed; subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus and systemic lupus erythematosus, also not represented in any of the resources we analyzed; keloids, represented only in LB&M.

Although no study has investigated the true prevalence of Fitzpatrick phototypes in the United States, He et al³ demonstrated the prevalence of Fitzpatrick phototypes V and VI to be 25.0% and 18.8%, respectively, in an ethnically diverse study of 3386 participants. Indeed, the representation of SOC in the resources we analyzed falls short of this plausible estimate of SOC in an increasingly diverse US population.

Our work adds to the growing body of literature exposing the deficiencies in SOC representation in dermatology. As Lester et al⁴ noted, such poor representation of SOC is deleterious not just to patients, who may be misdiagnosed, but also more generally to the integrity of the field of dermatology. Moreover, our study, which analyzes introductory resources referenced by the junior medical student, highlights a potential danger of poor SOC representation for trainees—limited exposure to SOC may leave medical students unprepared to recognize lesions in SOC during clerkships and residency. Furthermore, we note an additional concern with minimal SOC representation in online modules such as the AAD and LDM module as well as online databases such as DermNet NZ; images from these resources may be used as training sets for machine learning (ML) software (indeed, DermNet NZ has been used as a training set for ML programs⁵). However, if data sets with poor representation of SOC are used to train ML algorithms, then ML software may be unable to recognize lesions in SOC.⁶ Thus, inadequate representation of SOC in online modules and databases may exacerbate existing inequities in dermatology.

To address the paucity of SOC representation, students can be directed to resources devoted to depicting SOC; however, as discussed eloquently by Chu et al,¹ an attempt to update existing resources also must be made. The senior author in our study (S.J.K.) embraced such an approach, updating the dermatology lectures given to medical students to include more images of SOC. Such a top-down approach may represent a major step in dismantling the systemic biases that pervade dermatology.

A limitation of our analysis was use of the Fitzpatrick scale, which was conceived as a phenotypic scale to assess cutaneous responses to UV irradiation.⁷ Although it is the most commonly used scale to describe race/ethnicity and/or constitute skin color, it is not possible to include all non-White skin types and classify strictly under this umbrella term.

References

1. Chu B, Fathy R, Onyekaba G, et al. Distribution of skin-type diversity in photographs in AAD online educational modules. Cutis. 2021;107:157-159. doi:10.12788/cutis.0196

2. Marks JG Jr, Miller JJ. Lookingbill and Marks’ Principles of Dermatology. 6th ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2018.

3. He SY, McCulloch CE, Boscardin WJ, et al. Self-reported pigmentary phenotypes and race are significant but incomplete predictors of Fitzpatrick skin phototype in an ethnically diverse population. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;71:731-737. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.05.023

4. Lester JC, Taylor SC, Chren M-M. Under‐representation of skin of colour in dermatology images: not just an educational issue. Br J Dermatol. 2019;180:1521-1522. doi:10.1111/bjd.17608

5. Aggarwal P. Data augmentation in dermatology image recognition using machine learning. Skin Res Technol. 2019;25:815-820. doi:10.1111/srt.12726

6. Adamson AS, Smith A. Machine learning and health care disparities in dermatology. JAMA Dermatol. 2018;154:1247-1248. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.2348

7. Ware OR, Dawson JE, Shinohara MM, et al. Racial limitations of Fitzpatrick skin type. Cutis. 2020;105:77-80.

Authors’ Response

We thank Mr. Joshi and Dr. Kim for their reply to our article and their added contribution to the literature on inadequate representation of skin of color (SOC) in dermatology educational materials. In recent years, multiple analyses have reviewed textbooks and popular online resources for SOC representation.¹ These resources encompass all levels of education—from the laypatient to the medical student, and to residency and beyond—demonstrating the significant challenges to overcome.

In addition, as Mr. Joshi and Dr. Kim state, the potential for these inadequately representative resources to serve as training data for prediction and classification tools adds further urgency to the broader task at hand, as we do not wish to perpetuate disparities. Several tools already exist, including Derm Assist, a recent Google-produced tool that suggests a list of diagnoses from patient-provided images.² Although Derm Assist has been marked as a CE Class I (low risk) medical device in the European Union, the original research it is built on relied on training data with low representation of darker skin types (2.7% Fitzpatrick V and 0% Fitzpatrick VI),³ drawing concern for its generalizability.

These concerns about SOC representation are not new; dermatology advocates, scholars, and organizations such as the Skin of Color Society have been working to address these deficiencies for many years, contributing to education (including writing of resources and textbooks) and academic research. This work continues today. For instance, Lester et al⁴ described best practices for clinical photography in SOC; this guidance was not yet published at the time of our original submission. Not only should dermatology strive for increased quantity of representation but also quality. This metric is particularly important if the images are intended not just for education but also for use as training data for prediction and classification tools.

Examples of more recent actions at the organizational level include the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) announcing a 3-year plan to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion⁵ and VisualDx establishing #ProjectIMPACT, a collaboration to reduce health care biases in SOC.⁶ In the AAD 3-year plan, one goal is to “[i]ncrease use of images reflecting full spectrum of skin types and highlight topics on skin of color, health disparities, and cultural competency across all AAD education.”⁵ Although not specifically mentioned, we hope that the AAD has included updating the Basic Dermatology Curriculum, given its inadequate SOC representation, as part of its short-term goals. The greater recognition of these issues through more prevalent analyses published in leading dermatology journals is encouraging, and we hope both that improvements can be successfully implemented and that future studies will reveal improvements in representation.

Brian Chu, BS; Ramie Fathy, AB; Ginikanwa Onyekaba, BS; Jules B. Lipoff, MD

From the Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Dr. Lipoff is from the Department of Dermatology and the Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics.

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Correspondence: Jules B. Lipoff, MD, Department of Dermatology, University of Pennsylvania, Penn Medicine University City, 3737 Market St, Ste 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19104 (jules.lipoff@pennmedicine.upenn.edu).

References

1. Perlman KL, Williams NM, Egbeto IA, et al. Skin of color lacks representation in medical student resources: a cross-sectional study. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2021;7:195-196. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.12.018

2. Bui P, Liu Y. Using AI to help find answers to common skin conditions. Published May 18, 2021. Accessed June 12, 2021. https://blog.google/technology/health/ai-dermatology-preview-io-2021

3. Liu Y, Jain A, Eng C, et al. A deep learning system for differential diagnosis of skin diseases. Nature Medicine. 2020;26:900-908. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0842-3

4. Lester JC, Clark L, Linos E, et al. Clinical photography in skin of colour: tips and best practices. Br J Dermatol. 2021;184:1177-1179. doi:10.1111/bjd.19811

5. American Academy of Dermatology Association. Diversity in dermatology: diversity committee approved plan 2021-2023. Published January 26, 2021. Accessed June 24, 2021. https://assets.ctfassets.net/1ny4yoiyrqia/xQgnCE6ji5skUlcZQHS2b/65f0a9072811e11afcc33d043e02cd4d/DEI_Plan.pdf

6. VisualDx. #ProjectIMPACT. Accessed June 24, 2021. https://www.visualdx.com/projectimpact/

To the Editor:

We read with great interest the article by Chu et al¹ (Cutis. 2021;107:157-159) and commend them for noting the underrepresentation of skin of color (SOC) in the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) Basic Dermatology Curriculum. The AAD Basic Dermatology Curriculum represents one introductory resource that is ubiquitously utilized by medical students. Herein, we add an analysis of the representation of SOC in the following resources that also comprise the first exposure medical students have to dermatology: Dermatology Clinics Clinical Advisor articles (https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/home/dermatology/dermatology-clinics/), Learn Derm Module (LDM) by VisualDx (https://www.visualdx.com/learnderm/), Lookingbill and Marks’ Principles of Dermatology (6th ed)(LB&M),2 and DermNet NZ (https://dermnetnz.org/). We performed a focused search of the DermNet NZ database for images of the following common dermatologic conditions: acne, rosacea, alopecia, urticaria, arthropod bites, blistering diseases (bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris), connective tissue diseases (dermatomyositis and lupus), inflammatory conditions (atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, and psoriasis), keloids, benign and malignant neoplasms (nevi, seborrheic keratosis, actinic keratosis, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, and melanoma including acral melanoma), bacterial skin infections (impetigo, erysipelas, cellulitis, staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, and syphilis), fungal infections (dermatophyte infections), and viral skin infections (herpes, molluscum contagiosum, varicella-zoster virus, and warts). We classified images as light (Fitzpatrick phototypes I–IV) or dark (Fitzpatrick phototypes V or VI). We excluded images without visible background skin (eg, images of oral mucosa, genitalia, nails, palms and soles, dermoscopic images, histopathologic images).

We found the representation of SOC in the resources we selected to be as follows: Dermatology Clinics Clinical Advisor articles (70/367 or 19%); LDM (26/150 or 17%); LB&M (52/374 or 14%); DermNet NZ (11/310 or 4%). Representation of SOC in common dermatologic conditions such as actinic keratosis, alopecia, rosacea, urticaria, and warts was entirely absent across all resources. Other common skin diseases were represented in only one of the resources we analyzed: acne (represented only in LB&M, where only 3/11 images of acne were depicted in SOC); contact dermatitis (represented only in LB&M, where only 1/6 images of contact dermatitis were depicted in SOC); psoriasis (represented only on DermNet NZ, where only 2/25 images of psoriasis were depicted in SOC); seborrheic keratosis (represented only in LB&M, where 1/2 images of seborrheic keratosis were depicted in SOC). Furthermore, none of the resources we analyzed depicted malignancy (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma) in SOC. Although the poor representation of SOC in malignancies can be explained by the predilection of skin cancer for light skin, other dermatologic conditions that are more common in SOC also were poorly represented in these resources in SOC: acral melanoma, not represented in any of the resources we analyzed; subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus and systemic lupus erythematosus, also not represented in any of the resources we analyzed; keloids, represented only in LB&M.

Although no study has investigated the true prevalence of Fitzpatrick phototypes in the United States, He et al³ demonstrated the prevalence of Fitzpatrick phototypes V and VI to be 25.0% and 18.8%, respectively, in an ethnically diverse study of 3386 participants. Indeed, the representation of SOC in the resources we analyzed falls short of this plausible estimate of SOC in an increasingly diverse US population.

Our work adds to the growing body of literature exposing the deficiencies in SOC representation in dermatology. As Lester et al⁴ noted, such poor representation of SOC is deleterious not just to patients, who may be misdiagnosed, but also more generally to the integrity of the field of dermatology. Moreover, our study, which analyzes introductory resources referenced by the junior medical student, highlights a potential danger of poor SOC representation for trainees—limited exposure to SOC may leave medical students unprepared to recognize lesions in SOC during clerkships and residency. Furthermore, we note an additional concern with minimal SOC representation in online modules such as the AAD and LDM module as well as online databases such as DermNet NZ; images from these resources may be used as training sets for machine learning (ML) software (indeed, DermNet NZ has been used as a training set for ML programs⁵). However, if data sets with poor representation of SOC are used to train ML algorithms, then ML software may be unable to recognize lesions in SOC.⁶ Thus, inadequate representation of SOC in online modules and databases may exacerbate existing inequities in dermatology.

To address the paucity of SOC representation, students can be directed to resources devoted to depicting SOC; however, as discussed eloquently by Chu et al,¹ an attempt to update existing resources also must be made. The senior author in our study (S.J.K.) embraced such an approach, updating the dermatology lectures given to medical students to include more images of SOC. Such a top-down approach may represent a major step in dismantling the systemic biases that pervade dermatology.

A limitation of our analysis was use of the Fitzpatrick scale, which was conceived as a phenotypic scale to assess cutaneous responses to UV irradiation.⁷ Although it is the most commonly used scale to describe race/ethnicity and/or constitute skin color, it is not possible to include all non-White skin types and classify strictly under this umbrella term.

References

1. Chu B, Fathy R, Onyekaba G, et al. Distribution of skin-type diversity in photographs in AAD online educational modules. Cutis. 2021;107:157-159. doi:10.12788/cutis.0196

2. Marks JG Jr, Miller JJ. Lookingbill and Marks’ Principles of Dermatology. 6th ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2018.

3. He SY, McCulloch CE, Boscardin WJ, et al. Self-reported pigmentary phenotypes and race are significant but incomplete predictors of Fitzpatrick skin phototype in an ethnically diverse population. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;71:731-737. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.05.023

4. Lester JC, Taylor SC, Chren M-M. Under‐representation of skin of colour in dermatology images: not just an educational issue. Br J Dermatol. 2019;180:1521-1522. doi:10.1111/bjd.17608

5. Aggarwal P. Data augmentation in dermatology image recognition using machine learning. Skin Res Technol. 2019;25:815-820. doi:10.1111/srt.12726

6. Adamson AS, Smith A. Machine learning and health care disparities in dermatology. JAMA Dermatol. 2018;154:1247-1248. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.2348

7. Ware OR, Dawson JE, Shinohara MM, et al. Racial limitations of Fitzpatrick skin type. Cutis. 2020;105:77-80.

Authors’ Response

We thank Mr. Joshi and Dr. Kim for their reply to our article and their added contribution to the literature on inadequate representation of skin of color (SOC) in dermatology educational materials. In recent years, multiple analyses have reviewed textbooks and popular online resources for SOC representation.¹ These resources encompass all levels of education—from the laypatient to the medical student, and to residency and beyond—demonstrating the significant challenges to overcome.

In addition, as Mr. Joshi and Dr. Kim state, the potential for these inadequately representative resources to serve as training data for prediction and classification tools adds further urgency to the broader task at hand, as we do not wish to perpetuate disparities. Several tools already exist, including Derm Assist, a recent Google-produced tool that suggests a list of diagnoses from patient-provided images.² Although Derm Assist has been marked as a CE Class I (low risk) medical device in the European Union, the original research it is built on relied on training data with low representation of darker skin types (2.7% Fitzpatrick V and 0% Fitzpatrick VI),³ drawing concern for its generalizability.

These concerns about SOC representation are not new; dermatology advocates, scholars, and organizations such as the Skin of Color Society have been working to address these deficiencies for many years, contributing to education (including writing of resources and textbooks) and academic research. This work continues today. For instance, Lester et al⁴ described best practices for clinical photography in SOC; this guidance was not yet published at the time of our original submission. Not only should dermatology strive for increased quantity of representation but also quality. This metric is particularly important if the images are intended not just for education but also for use as training data for prediction and classification tools.

Examples of more recent actions at the organizational level include the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) announcing a 3-year plan to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion⁵ and VisualDx establishing #ProjectIMPACT, a collaboration to reduce health care biases in SOC.⁶ In the AAD 3-year plan, one goal is to “[i]ncrease use of images reflecting full spectrum of skin types and highlight topics on skin of color, health disparities, and cultural competency across all AAD education.”⁵ Although not specifically mentioned, we hope that the AAD has included updating the Basic Dermatology Curriculum, given its inadequate SOC representation, as part of its short-term goals. The greater recognition of these issues through more prevalent analyses published in leading dermatology journals is encouraging, and we hope both that improvements can be successfully implemented and that future studies will reveal improvements in representation.

Brian Chu, BS; Ramie Fathy, AB; Ginikanwa Onyekaba, BS; Jules B. Lipoff, MD

From the Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Dr. Lipoff is from the Department of Dermatology and the Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics.

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Correspondence: Jules B. Lipoff, MD, Department of Dermatology, University of Pennsylvania, Penn Medicine University City, 3737 Market St, Ste 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19104 (jules.lipoff@pennmedicine.upenn.edu).

References

1. Perlman KL, Williams NM, Egbeto IA, et al. Skin of color lacks representation in medical student resources: a cross-sectional study. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2021;7:195-196. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.12.018

2. Bui P, Liu Y. Using AI to help find answers to common skin conditions. Published May 18, 2021. Accessed June 12, 2021. https://blog.google/technology/health/ai-dermatology-preview-io-2021

3. Liu Y, Jain A, Eng C, et al. A deep learning system for differential diagnosis of skin diseases. Nature Medicine. 2020;26:900-908. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0842-3

4. Lester JC, Clark L, Linos E, et al. Clinical photography in skin of colour: tips and best practices. Br J Dermatol. 2021;184:1177-1179. doi:10.1111/bjd.19811

5. American Academy of Dermatology Association. Diversity in dermatology: diversity committee approved plan 2021-2023. Published January 26, 2021. Accessed June 24, 2021. https://assets.ctfassets.net/1ny4yoiyrqia/xQgnCE6ji5skUlcZQHS2b/65f0a9072811e11afcc33d043e02cd4d/DEI_Plan.pdf

6. VisualDx. #ProjectIMPACT. Accessed June 24, 2021. https://www.visualdx.com/projectimpact/

To the Editor:

We read with great interest the article by Chu et al¹ (Cutis. 2021;107:157-159) and commend them for noting the underrepresentation of skin of color (SOC) in the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) Basic Dermatology Curriculum. The AAD Basic Dermatology Curriculum represents one introductory resource that is ubiquitously utilized by medical students. Herein, we add an analysis of the representation of SOC in the following resources that also comprise the first exposure medical students have to dermatology: Dermatology Clinics Clinical Advisor articles (https://www.clinicaladvisor.com/home/dermatology/dermatology-clinics/), Learn Derm Module (LDM) by VisualDx (https://www.visualdx.com/learnderm/), Lookingbill and Marks’ Principles of Dermatology (6th ed)(LB&M),2 and DermNet NZ (https://dermnetnz.org/). We performed a focused search of the DermNet NZ database for images of the following common dermatologic conditions: acne, rosacea, alopecia, urticaria, arthropod bites, blistering diseases (bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris), connective tissue diseases (dermatomyositis and lupus), inflammatory conditions (atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, and psoriasis), keloids, benign and malignant neoplasms (nevi, seborrheic keratosis, actinic keratosis, basal and squamous cell carcinomas, and melanoma including acral melanoma), bacterial skin infections (impetigo, erysipelas, cellulitis, staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, and syphilis), fungal infections (dermatophyte infections), and viral skin infections (herpes, molluscum contagiosum, varicella-zoster virus, and warts). We classified images as light (Fitzpatrick phototypes I–IV) or dark (Fitzpatrick phototypes V or VI). We excluded images without visible background skin (eg, images of oral mucosa, genitalia, nails, palms and soles, dermoscopic images, histopathologic images).

We found the representation of SOC in the resources we selected to be as follows: Dermatology Clinics Clinical Advisor articles (70/367 or 19%); LDM (26/150 or 17%); LB&M (52/374 or 14%); DermNet NZ (11/310 or 4%). Representation of SOC in common dermatologic conditions such as actinic keratosis, alopecia, rosacea, urticaria, and warts was entirely absent across all resources. Other common skin diseases were represented in only one of the resources we analyzed: acne (represented only in LB&M, where only 3/11 images of acne were depicted in SOC); contact dermatitis (represented only in LB&M, where only 1/6 images of contact dermatitis were depicted in SOC); psoriasis (represented only on DermNet NZ, where only 2/25 images of psoriasis were depicted in SOC); seborrheic keratosis (represented only in LB&M, where 1/2 images of seborrheic keratosis were depicted in SOC). Furthermore, none of the resources we analyzed depicted malignancy (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma) in SOC. Although the poor representation of SOC in malignancies can be explained by the predilection of skin cancer for light skin, other dermatologic conditions that are more common in SOC also were poorly represented in these resources in SOC: acral melanoma, not represented in any of the resources we analyzed; subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus and systemic lupus erythematosus, also not represented in any of the resources we analyzed; keloids, represented only in LB&M.

Although no study has investigated the true prevalence of Fitzpatrick phototypes in the United States, He et al³ demonstrated the prevalence of Fitzpatrick phototypes V and VI to be 25.0% and 18.8%, respectively, in an ethnically diverse study of 3386 participants. Indeed, the representation of SOC in the resources we analyzed falls short of this plausible estimate of SOC in an increasingly diverse US population.

Our work adds to the growing body of literature exposing the deficiencies in SOC representation in dermatology. As Lester et al⁴ noted, such poor representation of SOC is deleterious not just to patients, who may be misdiagnosed, but also more generally to the integrity of the field of dermatology. Moreover, our study, which analyzes introductory resources referenced by the junior medical student, highlights a potential danger of poor SOC representation for trainees—limited exposure to SOC may leave medical students unprepared to recognize lesions in SOC during clerkships and residency. Furthermore, we note an additional concern with minimal SOC representation in online modules such as the AAD and LDM module as well as online databases such as DermNet NZ; images from these resources may be used as training sets for machine learning (ML) software (indeed, DermNet NZ has been used as a training set for ML programs⁵). However, if data sets with poor representation of SOC are used to train ML algorithms, then ML software may be unable to recognize lesions in SOC.⁶ Thus, inadequate representation of SOC in online modules and databases may exacerbate existing inequities in dermatology.

To address the paucity of SOC representation, students can be directed to resources devoted to depicting SOC; however, as discussed eloquently by Chu et al,¹ an attempt to update existing resources also must be made. The senior author in our study (S.J.K.) embraced such an approach, updating the dermatology lectures given to medical students to include more images of SOC. Such a top-down approach may represent a major step in dismantling the systemic biases that pervade dermatology.

A limitation of our analysis was use of the Fitzpatrick scale, which was conceived as a phenotypic scale to assess cutaneous responses to UV irradiation.⁷ Although it is the most commonly used scale to describe race/ethnicity and/or constitute skin color, it is not possible to include all non-White skin types and classify strictly under this umbrella term.

References

1. Chu B, Fathy R, Onyekaba G, et al. Distribution of skin-type diversity in photographs in AAD online educational modules. Cutis. 2021;107:157-159. doi:10.12788/cutis.0196

2. Marks JG Jr, Miller JJ. Lookingbill and Marks’ Principles of Dermatology. 6th ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2018.

3. He SY, McCulloch CE, Boscardin WJ, et al. Self-reported pigmentary phenotypes and race are significant but incomplete predictors of Fitzpatrick skin phototype in an ethnically diverse population. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;71:731-737. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2014.05.023

4. Lester JC, Taylor SC, Chren M-M. Under‐representation of skin of colour in dermatology images: not just an educational issue. Br J Dermatol. 2019;180:1521-1522. doi:10.1111/bjd.17608

5. Aggarwal P. Data augmentation in dermatology image recognition using machine learning. Skin Res Technol. 2019;25:815-820. doi:10.1111/srt.12726

6. Adamson AS, Smith A. Machine learning and health care disparities in dermatology. JAMA Dermatol. 2018;154:1247-1248. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.2348

7. Ware OR, Dawson JE, Shinohara MM, et al. Racial limitations of Fitzpatrick skin type. Cutis. 2020;105:77-80.

Authors’ Response

We thank Mr. Joshi and Dr. Kim for their reply to our article and their added contribution to the literature on inadequate representation of skin of color (SOC) in dermatology educational materials. In recent years, multiple analyses have reviewed textbooks and popular online resources for SOC representation.¹ These resources encompass all levels of education—from the laypatient to the medical student, and to residency and beyond—demonstrating the significant challenges to overcome.

In addition, as Mr. Joshi and Dr. Kim state, the potential for these inadequately representative resources to serve as training data for prediction and classification tools adds further urgency to the broader task at hand, as we do not wish to perpetuate disparities. Several tools already exist, including Derm Assist, a recent Google-produced tool that suggests a list of diagnoses from patient-provided images.² Although Derm Assist has been marked as a CE Class I (low risk) medical device in the European Union, the original research it is built on relied on training data with low representation of darker skin types (2.7% Fitzpatrick V and 0% Fitzpatrick VI),³ drawing concern for its generalizability.

These concerns about SOC representation are not new; dermatology advocates, scholars, and organizations such as the Skin of Color Society have been working to address these deficiencies for many years, contributing to education (including writing of resources and textbooks) and academic research. This work continues today. For instance, Lester et al⁴ described best practices for clinical photography in SOC; this guidance was not yet published at the time of our original submission. Not only should dermatology strive for increased quantity of representation but also quality. This metric is particularly important if the images are intended not just for education but also for use as training data for prediction and classification tools.

Examples of more recent actions at the organizational level include the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) announcing a 3-year plan to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion⁵ and VisualDx establishing #ProjectIMPACT, a collaboration to reduce health care biases in SOC.⁶ In the AAD 3-year plan, one goal is to “[i]ncrease use of images reflecting full spectrum of skin types and highlight topics on skin of color, health disparities, and cultural competency across all AAD education.”⁵ Although not specifically mentioned, we hope that the AAD has included updating the Basic Dermatology Curriculum, given its inadequate SOC representation, as part of its short-term goals. The greater recognition of these issues through more prevalent analyses published in leading dermatology journals is encouraging, and we hope both that improvements can be successfully implemented and that future studies will reveal improvements in representation.

Brian Chu, BS; Ramie Fathy, AB; Ginikanwa Onyekaba, BS; Jules B. Lipoff, MD

From the Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Dr. Lipoff is from the Department of Dermatology and the Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics.

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Correspondence: Jules B. Lipoff, MD, Department of Dermatology, University of Pennsylvania, Penn Medicine University City, 3737 Market St, Ste 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19104 (jules.lipoff@pennmedicine.upenn.edu).

References

1. Perlman KL, Williams NM, Egbeto IA, et al. Skin of color lacks representation in medical student resources: a cross-sectional study. Int J Womens Dermatol. 2021;7:195-196. doi:10.1016/j.ijwd.2020.12.018

2. Bui P, Liu Y. Using AI to help find answers to common skin conditions. Published May 18, 2021. Accessed June 12, 2021. https://blog.google/technology/health/ai-dermatology-preview-io-2021

3. Liu Y, Jain A, Eng C, et al. A deep learning system for differential diagnosis of skin diseases. Nature Medicine. 2020;26:900-908. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0842-3

4. Lester JC, Clark L, Linos E, et al. Clinical photography in skin of colour: tips and best practices. Br J Dermatol. 2021;184:1177-1179. doi:10.1111/bjd.19811

5. American Academy of Dermatology Association. Diversity in dermatology: diversity committee approved plan 2021-2023. Published January 26, 2021. Accessed June 24, 2021. https://assets.ctfassets.net/1ny4yoiyrqia/xQgnCE6ji5skUlcZQHS2b/65f0a9072811e11afcc33d043e02cd4d/DEI_Plan.pdf

6. VisualDx. #ProjectIMPACT. Accessed June 24, 2021. https://www.visualdx.com/projectimpact/

Rosacea fulminans (RF) is a rare facial dermatosis characterized by its fulminating course. ¹ It presents with superficial and deep-seated papules, pustules, and nodules combined with an intense reddish or cyanotic erythema localized to the face. Furthermore, there is an absence of comedones and involvement of the chest or back. ² Rosacea fulminans primarily affects women and often is, but not always, proceeded by seborrhea, chronic acne vulgaris, or rosacea. Although the etiology of RF remains unknown, immunologic, hormonal, and vascular factors have been implicated. ³ We report a case of RF in a pregnant patient with a history of mild acne as a teenager that was long ago resolved.

Case Report

A 32-year-old pregnant woman (10 weeks’ gestation) presented with a rapidly progressing inflammatory disorder of the face of 1 month’s duration. The lesions developed 3 weeks after beginning progesterone therapy (200 mg vaginal suppository) for infertility due to polycystic ovary syndrome. Despite discontinuing progesterone for the last month, the patient’s lesions had dramatically worsened (Figure 1). Empiric cephalosporin treatment prescribed by her primary care physician yielded no improvement. Physical examination at the current presentation revealed erythematous nodules and pustules all over the face, coalescing into large thick plaques on the patient’s right cheek and chin. Submental nodes were palpable and tender. Based on the initial clinical findings, acne conglobata secondary to progesterone therapy was considered. The patient was given intralesional triamcinolone (2.5 mg/cc) injections to all larger nodules and several blue light treatments.

The injected areas had improved 5 days after the initial visit; however, the chin and right paranasal cheek developed even more nodules and papules coalescing into large plaques. After consulting the patient’s obstetrician, prednisone (20 mg once daily) was initiated. Three weeks later, the patient’s nodular lesions had improved, but there was a showering of more than 100 pustules and increased general erythema of the entire face (Figure 2). Crotamiton cream 10% (every day before noon), ivermectin cream 1% (every night at bedtime), and sodium sulfacetamide cleanser 10% once daily were added to the treatment plan.

The patient delivered a healthy girl (birth weight, 1.985 kg) prematurely at 34 weeks’ gestation. At 2 months postpartum, the patient’s existing lesions continued to spontaneously improve; however, she still had numerous nodules and papules and continued to develop new lesions and form additional scars. Isotretinoin was instituted at 3 months postpartum upon cessation of nursing. Three months later (40 mg/d isotretinoin), the patient was nearly clear. At 8 months postpartum, isotretinoin was discontinued after a course of 150 mg/kg.

Comment

Rosacea fulminans initially was called pyoderma faciale but was later regarded as a severe form of rosacea and was renamed rosacea fulminans.² According to a PubMed search of articles indexed for MEDLINE using the terms pregnancy and rosacea fulminans or pyoderma faciale, we identified 12 publications reporting 20 cases of RF associated with pregnancy (Table). Although there is no substantial evidence regarding the exact mechanism, these cases indicate that pregnancy can be an exacerbating or causative factor in the pathogenesis of RF.

In addition to pregnancy, RF has been associated with inflammatory bowel disease, thyroid and liver disease, erythema nodosum, and severe emotional trauma. However, no organism has been consistently isolated, and no evidence of family history has been reported.¹ Histopathologic findings are dependent on the stage of disease. Massive infiltrates of neutrophils may be observed in early stages. In older lesions, infiltrates take the form of epithelioid cell granulomas.²

Treatment of RF during pregnancy is challenging. Early and aggressive treatment with retinoids, tetracycline antibiotics, antiandrogenic contraceptives, and dapsone is recommended in patients who are not pregnant; these therapies are all contraindicated in pregnancy. Topical steroids can be safely used; however, systemic steroids usually are required to control RF. The use of systemic steroids can only be justified if the risks for intrauterine growth retardation, maternal diabetes mellitus, and hypertension outweigh the benefits of treating this severe disfiguring skin condition.¹⁰ A study by Bakar et al¹³ indicated that azithromycin is an effective and safe alternative in the treatment of RF. It has a superior pharmacokinetic profile compared to other macrolides and does not pose increased risks for congenital malformation or miscarriage. Because of the concomitant use of both azithromycin and prednisone, it is not possible to determine which had the larger role in the patient’s improvement.

Isotretinoin therapy in our patient led to substantial improvement of RF. Time will tell if the response will be durable. Also unknown is the risk for recurrence with subsequent pregnancies, which has not been reported in the literature. Although it is difficult to confidently say that pregnancy was the inciting factor in this patient’s RF, this case certainly provides more evidence for a link between pregnancy and RF.

Rosacea fulminans (RF) is a rare facial dermatosis characterized by its fulminating course. ¹ It presents with superficial and deep-seated papules, pustules, and nodules combined with an intense reddish or cyanotic erythema localized to the face. Furthermore, there is an absence of comedones and involvement of the chest or back. ² Rosacea fulminans primarily affects women and often is, but not always, proceeded by seborrhea, chronic acne vulgaris, or rosacea. Although the etiology of RF remains unknown, immunologic, hormonal, and vascular factors have been implicated. ³ We report a case of RF in a pregnant patient with a history of mild acne as a teenager that was long ago resolved.

Case Report

A 32-year-old pregnant woman (10 weeks’ gestation) presented with a rapidly progressing inflammatory disorder of the face of 1 month’s duration. The lesions developed 3 weeks after beginning progesterone therapy (200 mg vaginal suppository) for infertility due to polycystic ovary syndrome. Despite discontinuing progesterone for the last month, the patient’s lesions had dramatically worsened (Figure 1). Empiric cephalosporin treatment prescribed by her primary care physician yielded no improvement. Physical examination at the current presentation revealed erythematous nodules and pustules all over the face, coalescing into large thick plaques on the patient’s right cheek and chin. Submental nodes were palpable and tender. Based on the initial clinical findings, acne conglobata secondary to progesterone therapy was considered. The patient was given intralesional triamcinolone (2.5 mg/cc) injections to all larger nodules and several blue light treatments.

The injected areas had improved 5 days after the initial visit; however, the chin and right paranasal cheek developed even more nodules and papules coalescing into large plaques. After consulting the patient’s obstetrician, prednisone (20 mg once daily) was initiated. Three weeks later, the patient’s nodular lesions had improved, but there was a showering of more than 100 pustules and increased general erythema of the entire face (Figure 2). Crotamiton cream 10% (every day before noon), ivermectin cream 1% (every night at bedtime), and sodium sulfacetamide cleanser 10% once daily were added to the treatment plan.

The patient delivered a healthy girl (birth weight, 1.985 kg) prematurely at 34 weeks’ gestation. At 2 months postpartum, the patient’s existing lesions continued to spontaneously improve; however, she still had numerous nodules and papules and continued to develop new lesions and form additional scars. Isotretinoin was instituted at 3 months postpartum upon cessation of nursing. Three months later (40 mg/d isotretinoin), the patient was nearly clear. At 8 months postpartum, isotretinoin was discontinued after a course of 150 mg/kg.

Comment

Rosacea fulminans initially was called pyoderma faciale but was later regarded as a severe form of rosacea and was renamed rosacea fulminans.² According to a PubMed search of articles indexed for MEDLINE using the terms pregnancy and rosacea fulminans or pyoderma faciale, we identified 12 publications reporting 20 cases of RF associated with pregnancy (Table). Although there is no substantial evidence regarding the exact mechanism, these cases indicate that pregnancy can be an exacerbating or causative factor in the pathogenesis of RF.

In addition to pregnancy, RF has been associated with inflammatory bowel disease, thyroid and liver disease, erythema nodosum, and severe emotional trauma. However, no organism has been consistently isolated, and no evidence of family history has been reported.¹ Histopathologic findings are dependent on the stage of disease. Massive infiltrates of neutrophils may be observed in early stages. In older lesions, infiltrates take the form of epithelioid cell granulomas.²

Treatment of RF during pregnancy is challenging. Early and aggressive treatment with retinoids, tetracycline antibiotics, antiandrogenic contraceptives, and dapsone is recommended in patients who are not pregnant; these therapies are all contraindicated in pregnancy. Topical steroids can be safely used; however, systemic steroids usually are required to control RF. The use of systemic steroids can only be justified if the risks for intrauterine growth retardation, maternal diabetes mellitus, and hypertension outweigh the benefits of treating this severe disfiguring skin condition.¹⁰ A study by Bakar et al¹³ indicated that azithromycin is an effective and safe alternative in the treatment of RF. It has a superior pharmacokinetic profile compared to other macrolides and does not pose increased risks for congenital malformation or miscarriage. Because of the concomitant use of both azithromycin and prednisone, it is not possible to determine which had the larger role in the patient’s improvement.

Isotretinoin therapy in our patient led to substantial improvement of RF. Time will tell if the response will be durable. Also unknown is the risk for recurrence with subsequent pregnancies, which has not been reported in the literature. Although it is difficult to confidently say that pregnancy was the inciting factor in this patient’s RF, this case certainly provides more evidence for a link between pregnancy and RF.

Rosacea fulminans (RF) is a rare facial dermatosis characterized by its fulminating course. ¹ It presents with superficial and deep-seated papules, pustules, and nodules combined with an intense reddish or cyanotic erythema localized to the face. Furthermore, there is an absence of comedones and involvement of the chest or back. ² Rosacea fulminans primarily affects women and often is, but not always, proceeded by seborrhea, chronic acne vulgaris, or rosacea. Although the etiology of RF remains unknown, immunologic, hormonal, and vascular factors have been implicated. ³ We report a case of RF in a pregnant patient with a history of mild acne as a teenager that was long ago resolved.

Case Report

A 32-year-old pregnant woman (10 weeks’ gestation) presented with a rapidly progressing inflammatory disorder of the face of 1 month’s duration. The lesions developed 3 weeks after beginning progesterone therapy (200 mg vaginal suppository) for infertility due to polycystic ovary syndrome. Despite discontinuing progesterone for the last month, the patient’s lesions had dramatically worsened (Figure 1). Empiric cephalosporin treatment prescribed by her primary care physician yielded no improvement. Physical examination at the current presentation revealed erythematous nodules and pustules all over the face, coalescing into large thick plaques on the patient’s right cheek and chin. Submental nodes were palpable and tender. Based on the initial clinical findings, acne conglobata secondary to progesterone therapy was considered. The patient was given intralesional triamcinolone (2.5 mg/cc) injections to all larger nodules and several blue light treatments.

The injected areas had improved 5 days after the initial visit; however, the chin and right paranasal cheek developed even more nodules and papules coalescing into large plaques. After consulting the patient’s obstetrician, prednisone (20 mg once daily) was initiated. Three weeks later, the patient’s nodular lesions had improved, but there was a showering of more than 100 pustules and increased general erythema of the entire face (Figure 2). Crotamiton cream 10% (every day before noon), ivermectin cream 1% (every night at bedtime), and sodium sulfacetamide cleanser 10% once daily were added to the treatment plan.

The patient delivered a healthy girl (birth weight, 1.985 kg) prematurely at 34 weeks’ gestation. At 2 months postpartum, the patient’s existing lesions continued to spontaneously improve; however, she still had numerous nodules and papules and continued to develop new lesions and form additional scars. Isotretinoin was instituted at 3 months postpartum upon cessation of nursing. Three months later (40 mg/d isotretinoin), the patient was nearly clear. At 8 months postpartum, isotretinoin was discontinued after a course of 150 mg/kg.

Comment

Rosacea fulminans initially was called pyoderma faciale but was later regarded as a severe form of rosacea and was renamed rosacea fulminans.² According to a PubMed search of articles indexed for MEDLINE using the terms pregnancy and rosacea fulminans or pyoderma faciale, we identified 12 publications reporting 20 cases of RF associated with pregnancy (Table). Although there is no substantial evidence regarding the exact mechanism, these cases indicate that pregnancy can be an exacerbating or causative factor in the pathogenesis of RF.

In addition to pregnancy, RF has been associated with inflammatory bowel disease, thyroid and liver disease, erythema nodosum, and severe emotional trauma. However, no organism has been consistently isolated, and no evidence of family history has been reported.¹ Histopathologic findings are dependent on the stage of disease. Massive infiltrates of neutrophils may be observed in early stages. In older lesions, infiltrates take the form of epithelioid cell granulomas.²

Treatment of RF during pregnancy is challenging. Early and aggressive treatment with retinoids, tetracycline antibiotics, antiandrogenic contraceptives, and dapsone is recommended in patients who are not pregnant; these therapies are all contraindicated in pregnancy. Topical steroids can be safely used; however, systemic steroids usually are required to control RF. The use of systemic steroids can only be justified if the risks for intrauterine growth retardation, maternal diabetes mellitus, and hypertension outweigh the benefits of treating this severe disfiguring skin condition.¹⁰ A study by Bakar et al¹³ indicated that azithromycin is an effective and safe alternative in the treatment of RF. It has a superior pharmacokinetic profile compared to other macrolides and does not pose increased risks for congenital malformation or miscarriage. Because of the concomitant use of both azithromycin and prednisone, it is not possible to determine which had the larger role in the patient’s improvement.

Isotretinoin therapy in our patient led to substantial improvement of RF. Time will tell if the response will be durable. Also unknown is the risk for recurrence with subsequent pregnancies, which has not been reported in the literature. Although it is difficult to confidently say that pregnancy was the inciting factor in this patient’s RF, this case certainly provides more evidence for a link between pregnancy and RF.

Practice Gap

Perioperative anxiety is common in patients undergoing nail surgery. Patients might worry about seeing blood; about the procedure itself, including nail avulsion; and about associated pain and disfigurement. Nail surgery causes a high level of anxiety that correlates positively with postoperative pain¹ and overall patient dissatisfaction. Furthermore, surgery-related anxiety is a predictor of increased postoperative analgesic use² and delayed recovery.³

Therefore, implementing strategies that reduce perioperative anxiety may help minimize postoperative pain. Squeezing a stress ball, hand-holding, virtual reality, and music are tools that have been studied to reduce anxiety in the context of Mohs micrographic surgery; these strategies have not been studied for nail surgery.

The Technique

Using a sleep mask is a practical solution to reduce patient anxiety during nail surgery. A minority of patients will choose to watch their surgical procedure; most become unnerved observing their nail surgery. Using a sleep mask diverts visual attention from the surgical field without physically interfering with the nail surgeon. Utilizing a sleep mask is cost-effective, with disposable sleep masks available online for less than $0.30 each. Patients can bring their own mask, or a mask can be offered prior to surgery.

If desired, patients are instructed to wear the sleep mask during the entirety of the procedure, starting from anesthetic infiltration until wound closure and dressing application. Any adjustments can be made with the patient’s free hand. The sleep mask can be offered to patients of all ages undergoing nail surgery under local anesthesia, except babies and young children, who require general anesthesia.

Practical Implications

Distraction is an important strategy to reduce anxiety and pain in patients undergoing surgical procedures. In an observational study of 3087 surgical patients, 36% reported that self-distraction was the most helpful strategy for coping with preoperative anxiety.⁴ In a randomized, open-label clinical trial of 72 patients undergoing peripheral venous catheterization, asking the patients simple questions during the procedure was more effective than local anesthesia in reducing the perception of pain.⁵

It is crucial to implement strategies to reduce anxiety in patients undergoing nail surgery. Using a sleep mask impedes direct visualization of the surgical field, thus distracting the patient’s sight and attention from the procedure. Furthermore, this technique is safe and cost-effective.

Controlled clinical trials are necessary to assess the efficacy of this method in reducing nail surgery–related anxiety in comparison to other techniques.

Practice Gap

Perioperative anxiety is common in patients undergoing nail surgery. Patients might worry about seeing blood; about the procedure itself, including nail avulsion; and about associated pain and disfigurement. Nail surgery causes a high level of anxiety that correlates positively with postoperative pain¹ and overall patient dissatisfaction. Furthermore, surgery-related anxiety is a predictor of increased postoperative analgesic use² and delayed recovery.³

Therefore, implementing strategies that reduce perioperative anxiety may help minimize postoperative pain. Squeezing a stress ball, hand-holding, virtual reality, and music are tools that have been studied to reduce anxiety in the context of Mohs micrographic surgery; these strategies have not been studied for nail surgery.

The Technique

Using a sleep mask is a practical solution to reduce patient anxiety during nail surgery. A minority of patients will choose to watch their surgical procedure; most become unnerved observing their nail surgery. Using a sleep mask diverts visual attention from the surgical field without physically interfering with the nail surgeon. Utilizing a sleep mask is cost-effective, with disposable sleep masks available online for less than $0.30 each. Patients can bring their own mask, or a mask can be offered prior to surgery.

If desired, patients are instructed to wear the sleep mask during the entirety of the procedure, starting from anesthetic infiltration until wound closure and dressing application. Any adjustments can be made with the patient’s free hand. The sleep mask can be offered to patients of all ages undergoing nail surgery under local anesthesia, except babies and young children, who require general anesthesia.

Practical Implications

Distraction is an important strategy to reduce anxiety and pain in patients undergoing surgical procedures. In an observational study of 3087 surgical patients, 36% reported that self-distraction was the most helpful strategy for coping with preoperative anxiety.⁴ In a randomized, open-label clinical trial of 72 patients undergoing peripheral venous catheterization, asking the patients simple questions during the procedure was more effective than local anesthesia in reducing the perception of pain.⁵

It is crucial to implement strategies to reduce anxiety in patients undergoing nail surgery. Using a sleep mask impedes direct visualization of the surgical field, thus distracting the patient’s sight and attention from the procedure. Furthermore, this technique is safe and cost-effective.

Controlled clinical trials are necessary to assess the efficacy of this method in reducing nail surgery–related anxiety in comparison to other techniques.

Practice Gap

Perioperative anxiety is common in patients undergoing nail surgery. Patients might worry about seeing blood; about the procedure itself, including nail avulsion; and about associated pain and disfigurement. Nail surgery causes a high level of anxiety that correlates positively with postoperative pain¹ and overall patient dissatisfaction. Furthermore, surgery-related anxiety is a predictor of increased postoperative analgesic use² and delayed recovery.³

Therefore, implementing strategies that reduce perioperative anxiety may help minimize postoperative pain. Squeezing a stress ball, hand-holding, virtual reality, and music are tools that have been studied to reduce anxiety in the context of Mohs micrographic surgery; these strategies have not been studied for nail surgery.

The Technique

Using a sleep mask is a practical solution to reduce patient anxiety during nail surgery. A minority of patients will choose to watch their surgical procedure; most become unnerved observing their nail surgery. Using a sleep mask diverts visual attention from the surgical field without physically interfering with the nail surgeon. Utilizing a sleep mask is cost-effective, with disposable sleep masks available online for less than $0.30 each. Patients can bring their own mask, or a mask can be offered prior to surgery.

If desired, patients are instructed to wear the sleep mask during the entirety of the procedure, starting from anesthetic infiltration until wound closure and dressing application. Any adjustments can be made with the patient’s free hand. The sleep mask can be offered to patients of all ages undergoing nail surgery under local anesthesia, except babies and young children, who require general anesthesia.

Practical Implications

Distraction is an important strategy to reduce anxiety and pain in patients undergoing surgical procedures. In an observational study of 3087 surgical patients, 36% reported that self-distraction was the most helpful strategy for coping with preoperative anxiety.⁴ In a randomized, open-label clinical trial of 72 patients undergoing peripheral venous catheterization, asking the patients simple questions during the procedure was more effective than local anesthesia in reducing the perception of pain.⁵

It is crucial to implement strategies to reduce anxiety in patients undergoing nail surgery. Using a sleep mask impedes direct visualization of the surgical field, thus distracting the patient’s sight and attention from the procedure. Furthermore, this technique is safe and cost-effective.

Controlled clinical trials are necessary to assess the efficacy of this method in reducing nail surgery–related anxiety in comparison to other techniques.

Congenital onychodysplasia of the index finger (COIF), or Iso-Kikuchi syndrome, is a rare disorder characterized by malformation of one or both nails of the index fingers. The various anomalies described are anonychia, micronychia, polyonychia, malalignment, or hemi-onychogryphosis. It may be associated with abnormalities of the underlying phalangeal bone, the most masked being bifurcation of the terminal phalange.¹ Initially thought to be nonhereditary and nonfamilial,² it is now known that COIF can be inherited in an autosomal-dominant fashion.³ Millman and Strier³ described a family of 9 patients with COIF. It rarely is described outside of Japan. Padmavathy et al⁴ described a case in an Indian patient with COIF that was associated with the absence of a ring finger in addition to anomalies of the metacarpal bones.

Congenital onychodysplasia of the index finger has a broad spectrum regarding its etiology and clinical features.⁵ The pathogenesis of COIF still is poorly understood. Deficient circulation in digital arteries is thought to be a putative mechanism for developing a deformed nail. The nail is affected on the radial side of the index finger, likely because of the smaller caliber of the artery on that side.⁵ Hereditary as well as nonhereditary sporadic cases have been reported. In addition to the various fingernail anomalies, skeletal abnormalities also have been reported. Baran and Stroud⁶ have reported deformed lunulae as a manifestation of COIF.

The Diagnosis: Congenital Onychodysplasia of the Index Finger

The differential diagnosis of COIF includes hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, nail-patella syndrome, Poland syndrome, and DOOR syndrome. Hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia exhibits onychodystrophy, generalized hypotrichosis, palmoplantar keratoderma, and dental anomalies.⁷ Nail-patella syndrome presents with hypoplasia of the fingernails and toenails, triangular nail lunulae, absent or hypoplastic patellae, and elbow and iliac horn dysplasia. Poland syndrome is distinguished from COIF by the congenital absence of the pectoralis major muscle on the ipsilateral side of the involved digits. The DOOR syndrome tetrad is comprised of deafness, onychodystrophy, osteodystrophy, and mental retardation.⁸ Unlike these conditions, COIF does not involve systems other than the nails and phalanges.

Treatment of this condition is mainly conservative, as patients typically do not have symptoms.⁹ Surgical interventions can be considered for cosmetic concerns. Knowledge of this congenital entity and its clinical findings is essential to prevent unnecessary procedures and workup.

Congenital onychodysplasia of the index finger (COIF), or Iso-Kikuchi syndrome, is a rare disorder characterized by malformation of one or both nails of the index fingers. The various anomalies described are anonychia, micronychia, polyonychia, malalignment, or hemi-onychogryphosis. It may be associated with abnormalities of the underlying phalangeal bone, the most masked being bifurcation of the terminal phalange.¹ Initially thought to be nonhereditary and nonfamilial,² it is now known that COIF can be inherited in an autosomal-dominant fashion.³ Millman and Strier³ described a family of 9 patients with COIF. It rarely is described outside of Japan. Padmavathy et al⁴ described a case in an Indian patient with COIF that was associated with the absence of a ring finger in addition to anomalies of the metacarpal bones.

Congenital onychodysplasia of the index finger has a broad spectrum regarding its etiology and clinical features.⁵ The pathogenesis of COIF still is poorly understood. Deficient circulation in digital arteries is thought to be a putative mechanism for developing a deformed nail. The nail is affected on the radial side of the index finger, likely because of the smaller caliber of the artery on that side.⁵ Hereditary as well as nonhereditary sporadic cases have been reported. In addition to the various fingernail anomalies, skeletal abnormalities also have been reported. Baran and Stroud⁶ have reported deformed lunulae as a manifestation of COIF.

The Diagnosis: Congenital Onychodysplasia of the Index Finger

The differential diagnosis of COIF includes hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, nail-patella syndrome, Poland syndrome, and DOOR syndrome. Hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia exhibits onychodystrophy, generalized hypotrichosis, palmoplantar keratoderma, and dental anomalies.⁷ Nail-patella syndrome presents with hypoplasia of the fingernails and toenails, triangular nail lunulae, absent or hypoplastic patellae, and elbow and iliac horn dysplasia. Poland syndrome is distinguished from COIF by the congenital absence of the pectoralis major muscle on the ipsilateral side of the involved digits. The DOOR syndrome tetrad is comprised of deafness, onychodystrophy, osteodystrophy, and mental retardation.⁸ Unlike these conditions, COIF does not involve systems other than the nails and phalanges.

Treatment of this condition is mainly conservative, as patients typically do not have symptoms.⁹ Surgical interventions can be considered for cosmetic concerns. Knowledge of this congenital entity and its clinical findings is essential to prevent unnecessary procedures and workup.

Congenital onychodysplasia of the index finger (COIF), or Iso-Kikuchi syndrome, is a rare disorder characterized by malformation of one or both nails of the index fingers. The various anomalies described are anonychia, micronychia, polyonychia, malalignment, or hemi-onychogryphosis. It may be associated with abnormalities of the underlying phalangeal bone, the most masked being bifurcation of the terminal phalange.¹ Initially thought to be nonhereditary and nonfamilial,² it is now known that COIF can be inherited in an autosomal-dominant fashion.³ Millman and Strier³ described a family of 9 patients with COIF. It rarely is described outside of Japan. Padmavathy et al⁴ described a case in an Indian patient with COIF that was associated with the absence of a ring finger in addition to anomalies of the metacarpal bones.

Congenital onychodysplasia of the index finger has a broad spectrum regarding its etiology and clinical features.⁵ The pathogenesis of COIF still is poorly understood. Deficient circulation in digital arteries is thought to be a putative mechanism for developing a deformed nail. The nail is affected on the radial side of the index finger, likely because of the smaller caliber of the artery on that side.⁵ Hereditary as well as nonhereditary sporadic cases have been reported. In addition to the various fingernail anomalies, skeletal abnormalities also have been reported. Baran and Stroud⁶ have reported deformed lunulae as a manifestation of COIF.

The Diagnosis: Congenital Onychodysplasia of the Index Finger

The differential diagnosis of COIF includes hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, nail-patella syndrome, Poland syndrome, and DOOR syndrome. Hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia exhibits onychodystrophy, generalized hypotrichosis, palmoplantar keratoderma, and dental anomalies.⁷ Nail-patella syndrome presents with hypoplasia of the fingernails and toenails, triangular nail lunulae, absent or hypoplastic patellae, and elbow and iliac horn dysplasia. Poland syndrome is distinguished from COIF by the congenital absence of the pectoralis major muscle on the ipsilateral side of the involved digits. The DOOR syndrome tetrad is comprised of deafness, onychodystrophy, osteodystrophy, and mental retardation.⁸ Unlike these conditions, COIF does not involve systems other than the nails and phalanges.

Treatment of this condition is mainly conservative, as patients typically do not have symptoms.⁹ Surgical interventions can be considered for cosmetic concerns. Knowledge of this congenital entity and its clinical findings is essential to prevent unnecessary procedures and workup.

Professional appearance of servicemembers has been a long-standing custom in the US Military. Specific standards are determined by each branch. Initially, men dominated the military.^1,2 As the number of women as well as racial diversity increased in the military, modifications to grooming standards were slow to change and resulted in female hair standards requiring a uniform tight and sleek style or short haircut. Clinicians can be attuned to these occupational standards and their implications on the diagnosis and management of common diseases of the hair and scalp.

History of Hairstyle Standards for Female Servicemembers

For half a century, female servicemembers had limited hairstyle choices. They were not authorized to have hair shorter than one-quarter inch in length. They could choose either short hair worn down or long hair with neatly secured loose ends in the form of a bun or a tucked braid—both of which could not extend past the bottom edge of the uniform collar.^3-5 Female navy sailors and air force airmen with long hair were only allowed to wear ponytails during physical training; however, army soldiers previously were limited to wearing a bun.^3,6,7 Cornrows and microbraids were authorized in the mid-1990s for the US Air Force, but policy stated that locs were prohibited due to their “unkempt” and “matted” nature. Furthermore, the size of hair bulk in the air force was restricted to no more than 3 inches and could not obstruct wear of the uniform cap.⁵ Based on these regulations, female servicemembers with longer hair had to utilize tight hairstyles that caused prolonged traction and pressure along the scalp, which contributed to headaches, a sore scalp, and alopecia over time. Normalization of these symptoms led to underreporting, as women lived with the consequences or turned to shorter hairstyles.

In the last decade alone, female servicemembers have witnessed the greatest number of changes in authorized hairstyles despite being part of the military for more than 50 years (Figure 1).^1-11 In 2014, the language used in the air force instructions to describe locs was revised to remove ethnically offensive terms.^4,5 This same year, the army allowed female soldiers to wear ponytails during physical training, a privilege that had been authorized by other services years prior.^3,6,7 By the end of 2018, locs were authorized by all services, and female sailors could wear a ponytail in all navy uniforms as long as it did not extend 3 inches below the collar.^3,4,6-8 In 2018, the air force increased authorized hair bulk up to 3.5 inches from the previous mandate of 3 inches and approved female buzz cuts^6,9; in 2020, it allowed hair bulk up to 4 inches. As of 2021, female airmen can wear a ponytail and/or braid(s) as long as it starts below the crown of the head and the length does not extend below a horizontal line running between the top of each sleeve inseam at the underarm (Figures 2–4).⁶ In an ongoing effort to be more inclusive of hair density differences, female airmen will be authorized to wear a ponytail not exceeding a maximum width bulk of 1 ft starting June 25, 2021, so long as they can comply with the above regulations.¹¹ The army now allows ponytails and braids across all uniforms, as long they do not extend past the bottom of the shoulder blades. This change came just months after authorizing the wearing of ponytails tucked under the uniform blouse with tactical headgear.¹⁰ These changes allow for a variety of hairstyles for members to practice while avoiding the physical consequences that develop from repetitive traction and pressure along the same areas of the hair and scalp.

Common Hair Disorders in Female Servicemembers

Herein, we discuss 3 of the most common hair and scalp disorders linked to grooming practices utilized by women to meet prior military regulations: trichorrhexis nodosa (TN), extracranial headaches, and traction alopecia (TA). It is essential that health care providers are able to promptly recognize these conditions, understand their risk factors, and be familiar with first-line treatment options. With these new standards, the hope is that the incidence of the following conditions decreases, thus improving servicemembers’ medical readiness and overall quality of life.

Trichorrhexis Nodosa
Acquired TN is a defect in the hair shaft that causes the hair to break easily secondary to chemical, thermal, or mechanical trauma. This can include but is not limited to chemical relaxers, blow-dryers, excessive brushing or styling, flat irons, and tightly packed hairstyles. The condition is characterized by a thickened hair diameter and splitting at the tip. Clinically, it may present as brittle, lusterless, broken hair with split ends, as well as a positive tug test.¹⁴ Management includes gentle hair care and avoidance of harsh hair care practices and treatments.

Extracranial Headaches
Headaches are a common concern among military servicemembers¹⁵ and generally are classified as primary or secondary. A less commonly discussed primary headache disorder includes external-pressure headaches, which result from either sustained compression or traction of the soft tissues of the scalp, usually from wearing headbands, helmets, or tight hairstyles.¹⁶ Additional at-risk groups include those who chronically wear surgical scrub caps or flight caps, especially if clipped or pinned to the hair. In our 38 years of combined military clinical experience, we can attest that these types of headaches are common among female servicemembers. The diagnostic criteria for an external-pressure headache, commonly referred to by patients as a “ponytail headache,” includes at least 2 headache episodes triggered within 1 hour of sustained traction on the scalp, maximal at the site of traction and resolving within 1 hour after relieving the traction.¹⁶ Management includes removal of the pressure-causing source, usually a tight ponytail or bun.

Traction Alopecia
Traction alopecia is hair loss caused by repetitive or prolonged tension on the hair secondary to tight hairstyles. It can be clinically classified into 2 types: marginal and nonmarginal patchy alopecia (Figure 5).^13,17,18 Traction alopecia most commonly is found in individuals with ethnic hair, predominantly Black women. Hairstyles with the highest risk for causing TA include tight buns, ponytails, cornrows, weaves, and locs—all of which are utilized by female servicemembers to maintain a professional appearance and adhere to grooming regulations.^13,18 Other groups at risk include athletes (eg, ballerinas, gymnasts) and those with chronic headwear use (eg, turbans, helmets, nurse caps, wigs).¹⁸ Early TA typically presents with perifollicular erythema followed by follicular-based papules or pustules.^13,18 Marginal TA classically includes frontotemporal hair loss or thinning with or without a fringe sign.^17,18 Nonmarginal TA includes patchy alopecia most commonly involving the parietal or occipital scalp, seen with chignons, buns, ponytails, or the use of clips, extensions, or bobby pins.¹⁸ The first line in management is avoidance of traction-causing hairstyles or headgear. Medical therapy may be warranted and consists of a single agent or combination regimen to include oral or topical antibiotics, topical or intralesional steroids, and topical minoxidil.^13,18

Final Thoughts

Military hair-grooming standards have evolved over time. Recent changes show that the US Department of Defense is seriously evaluating policies that may be inherently exclusive. Prior grooming standards resulted in the widespread use of tight hairstyles and harsh hair treatments among female servicemembers with long hair. These practices resulted in TN, extracranial headaches, and TA, among other hair and scalp disorders. These occupational-related hair conditions impact female servicemembers’ mental and physical well-being and thus impact military readiness. Physicians should recognize that these conditions can be related to occupational grooming standards that may impact hair care practices.

The challenge that remains is a lack of standardized documentation for hair and scalp symptoms in the medical record. Due to a paucity in reporting and documentation, limited objective data exist to guide future recommendations for military grooming standards. Another obstacle is the lack of knowledge of hair diseases among primary care providers and patients, especially due to the underrepresentation of ethnic hair in medical textbooks.¹⁹ As a result, women frequently accept their hair symptoms as normal and either suffer through them, cut their hair short, or wear wigs before considering a visit to the doctor. Furthermore, hair-grooming standards can expose racial disparities, which are the driving force behind the current policy changes. Clinicians can strive to ask about hair and scalp symptoms and document the following in relation to hair and scalp disorders: occupational grooming requirements; skin and hair type; location, number, and size of scalp lesion(s); onset; duration; current and prior hair care practices; history of treatment; and clinical course accompanied with photographic documentation. Ultimately, improved awareness in patients, collaboration between physicians, and consistent clinical documentation can help create positive change and continued improvement in hair-grooming standards within the military. Improved reporting and documentation will facilitate further study into the effectiveness of the updated hair-grooming standards in female servicemembers.

Professional appearance of servicemembers has been a long-standing custom in the US Military. Specific standards are determined by each branch. Initially, men dominated the military.^1,2 As the number of women as well as racial diversity increased in the military, modifications to grooming standards were slow to change and resulted in female hair standards requiring a uniform tight and sleek style or short haircut. Clinicians can be attuned to these occupational standards and their implications on the diagnosis and management of common diseases of the hair and scalp.

History of Hairstyle Standards for Female Servicemembers

For half a century, female servicemembers had limited hairstyle choices. They were not authorized to have hair shorter than one-quarter inch in length. They could choose either short hair worn down or long hair with neatly secured loose ends in the form of a bun or a tucked braid—both of which could not extend past the bottom edge of the uniform collar.^3-5 Female navy sailors and air force airmen with long hair were only allowed to wear ponytails during physical training; however, army soldiers previously were limited to wearing a bun.^3,6,7 Cornrows and microbraids were authorized in the mid-1990s for the US Air Force, but policy stated that locs were prohibited due to their “unkempt” and “matted” nature. Furthermore, the size of hair bulk in the air force was restricted to no more than 3 inches and could not obstruct wear of the uniform cap.⁵ Based on these regulations, female servicemembers with longer hair had to utilize tight hairstyles that caused prolonged traction and pressure along the scalp, which contributed to headaches, a sore scalp, and alopecia over time. Normalization of these symptoms led to underreporting, as women lived with the consequences or turned to shorter hairstyles.

In the last decade alone, female servicemembers have witnessed the greatest number of changes in authorized hairstyles despite being part of the military for more than 50 years (Figure 1).^1-11 In 2014, the language used in the air force instructions to describe locs was revised to remove ethnically offensive terms.^4,5 This same year, the army allowed female soldiers to wear ponytails during physical training, a privilege that had been authorized by other services years prior.^3,6,7 By the end of 2018, locs were authorized by all services, and female sailors could wear a ponytail in all navy uniforms as long as it did not extend 3 inches below the collar.^3,4,6-8 In 2018, the air force increased authorized hair bulk up to 3.5 inches from the previous mandate of 3 inches and approved female buzz cuts^6,9; in 2020, it allowed hair bulk up to 4 inches. As of 2021, female airmen can wear a ponytail and/or braid(s) as long as it starts below the crown of the head and the length does not extend below a horizontal line running between the top of each sleeve inseam at the underarm (Figures 2–4).⁶ In an ongoing effort to be more inclusive of hair density differences, female airmen will be authorized to wear a ponytail not exceeding a maximum width bulk of 1 ft starting June 25, 2021, so long as they can comply with the above regulations.¹¹ The army now allows ponytails and braids across all uniforms, as long they do not extend past the bottom of the shoulder blades. This change came just months after authorizing the wearing of ponytails tucked under the uniform blouse with tactical headgear.¹⁰ These changes allow for a variety of hairstyles for members to practice while avoiding the physical consequences that develop from repetitive traction and pressure along the same areas of the hair and scalp.

Common Hair Disorders in Female Servicemembers

Herein, we discuss 3 of the most common hair and scalp disorders linked to grooming practices utilized by women to meet prior military regulations: trichorrhexis nodosa (TN), extracranial headaches, and traction alopecia (TA). It is essential that health care providers are able to promptly recognize these conditions, understand their risk factors, and be familiar with first-line treatment options. With these new standards, the hope is that the incidence of the following conditions decreases, thus improving servicemembers’ medical readiness and overall quality of life.

Trichorrhexis Nodosa
Acquired TN is a defect in the hair shaft that causes the hair to break easily secondary to chemical, thermal, or mechanical trauma. This can include but is not limited to chemical relaxers, blow-dryers, excessive brushing or styling, flat irons, and tightly packed hairstyles. The condition is characterized by a thickened hair diameter and splitting at the tip. Clinically, it may present as brittle, lusterless, broken hair with split ends, as well as a positive tug test.¹⁴ Management includes gentle hair care and avoidance of harsh hair care practices and treatments.

Extracranial Headaches
Headaches are a common concern among military servicemembers¹⁵ and generally are classified as primary or secondary. A less commonly discussed primary headache disorder includes external-pressure headaches, which result from either sustained compression or traction of the soft tissues of the scalp, usually from wearing headbands, helmets, or tight hairstyles.¹⁶ Additional at-risk groups include those who chronically wear surgical scrub caps or flight caps, especially if clipped or pinned to the hair. In our 38 years of combined military clinical experience, we can attest that these types of headaches are common among female servicemembers. The diagnostic criteria for an external-pressure headache, commonly referred to by patients as a “ponytail headache,” includes at least 2 headache episodes triggered within 1 hour of sustained traction on the scalp, maximal at the site of traction and resolving within 1 hour after relieving the traction.¹⁶ Management includes removal of the pressure-causing source, usually a tight ponytail or bun.

Traction Alopecia
Traction alopecia is hair loss caused by repetitive or prolonged tension on the hair secondary to tight hairstyles. It can be clinically classified into 2 types: marginal and nonmarginal patchy alopecia (Figure 5).^13,17,18 Traction alopecia most commonly is found in individuals with ethnic hair, predominantly Black women. Hairstyles with the highest risk for causing TA include tight buns, ponytails, cornrows, weaves, and locs—all of which are utilized by female servicemembers to maintain a professional appearance and adhere to grooming regulations.^13,18 Other groups at risk include athletes (eg, ballerinas, gymnasts) and those with chronic headwear use (eg, turbans, helmets, nurse caps, wigs).¹⁸ Early TA typically presents with perifollicular erythema followed by follicular-based papules or pustules.^13,18 Marginal TA classically includes frontotemporal hair loss or thinning with or without a fringe sign.^17,18 Nonmarginal TA includes patchy alopecia most commonly involving the parietal or occipital scalp, seen with chignons, buns, ponytails, or the use of clips, extensions, or bobby pins.¹⁸ The first line in management is avoidance of traction-causing hairstyles or headgear. Medical therapy may be warranted and consists of a single agent or combination regimen to include oral or topical antibiotics, topical or intralesional steroids, and topical minoxidil.^13,18

Final Thoughts

Military hair-grooming standards have evolved over time. Recent changes show that the US Department of Defense is seriously evaluating policies that may be inherently exclusive. Prior grooming standards resulted in the widespread use of tight hairstyles and harsh hair treatments among female servicemembers with long hair. These practices resulted in TN, extracranial headaches, and TA, among other hair and scalp disorders. These occupational-related hair conditions impact female servicemembers’ mental and physical well-being and thus impact military readiness. Physicians should recognize that these conditions can be related to occupational grooming standards that may impact hair care practices.

The challenge that remains is a lack of standardized documentation for hair and scalp symptoms in the medical record. Due to a paucity in reporting and documentation, limited objective data exist to guide future recommendations for military grooming standards. Another obstacle is the lack of knowledge of hair diseases among primary care providers and patients, especially due to the underrepresentation of ethnic hair in medical textbooks.¹⁹ As a result, women frequently accept their hair symptoms as normal and either suffer through them, cut their hair short, or wear wigs before considering a visit to the doctor. Furthermore, hair-grooming standards can expose racial disparities, which are the driving force behind the current policy changes. Clinicians can strive to ask about hair and scalp symptoms and document the following in relation to hair and scalp disorders: occupational grooming requirements; skin and hair type; location, number, and size of scalp lesion(s); onset; duration; current and prior hair care practices; history of treatment; and clinical course accompanied with photographic documentation. Ultimately, improved awareness in patients, collaboration between physicians, and consistent clinical documentation can help create positive change and continued improvement in hair-grooming standards within the military. Improved reporting and documentation will facilitate further study into the effectiveness of the updated hair-grooming standards in female servicemembers.

Professional appearance of servicemembers has been a long-standing custom in the US Military. Specific standards are determined by each branch. Initially, men dominated the military.^1,2 As the number of women as well as racial diversity increased in the military, modifications to grooming standards were slow to change and resulted in female hair standards requiring a uniform tight and sleek style or short haircut. Clinicians can be attuned to these occupational standards and their implications on the diagnosis and management of common diseases of the hair and scalp.

History of Hairstyle Standards for Female Servicemembers

For half a century, female servicemembers had limited hairstyle choices. They were not authorized to have hair shorter than one-quarter inch in length. They could choose either short hair worn down or long hair with neatly secured loose ends in the form of a bun or a tucked braid—both of which could not extend past the bottom edge of the uniform collar.^3-5 Female navy sailors and air force airmen with long hair were only allowed to wear ponytails during physical training; however, army soldiers previously were limited to wearing a bun.^3,6,7 Cornrows and microbraids were authorized in the mid-1990s for the US Air Force, but policy stated that locs were prohibited due to their “unkempt” and “matted” nature. Furthermore, the size of hair bulk in the air force was restricted to no more than 3 inches and could not obstruct wear of the uniform cap.⁵ Based on these regulations, female servicemembers with longer hair had to utilize tight hairstyles that caused prolonged traction and pressure along the scalp, which contributed to headaches, a sore scalp, and alopecia over time. Normalization of these symptoms led to underreporting, as women lived with the consequences or turned to shorter hairstyles.

In the last decade alone, female servicemembers have witnessed the greatest number of changes in authorized hairstyles despite being part of the military for more than 50 years (Figure 1).^1-11 In 2014, the language used in the air force instructions to describe locs was revised to remove ethnically offensive terms.^4,5 This same year, the army allowed female soldiers to wear ponytails during physical training, a privilege that had been authorized by other services years prior.^3,6,7 By the end of 2018, locs were authorized by all services, and female sailors could wear a ponytail in all navy uniforms as long as it did not extend 3 inches below the collar.^3,4,6-8 In 2018, the air force increased authorized hair bulk up to 3.5 inches from the previous mandate of 3 inches and approved female buzz cuts^6,9; in 2020, it allowed hair bulk up to 4 inches. As of 2021, female airmen can wear a ponytail and/or braid(s) as long as it starts below the crown of the head and the length does not extend below a horizontal line running between the top of each sleeve inseam at the underarm (Figures 2–4).⁶ In an ongoing effort to be more inclusive of hair density differences, female airmen will be authorized to wear a ponytail not exceeding a maximum width bulk of 1 ft starting June 25, 2021, so long as they can comply with the above regulations.¹¹ The army now allows ponytails and braids across all uniforms, as long they do not extend past the bottom of the shoulder blades. This change came just months after authorizing the wearing of ponytails tucked under the uniform blouse with tactical headgear.¹⁰ These changes allow for a variety of hairstyles for members to practice while avoiding the physical consequences that develop from repetitive traction and pressure along the same areas of the hair and scalp.

Common Hair Disorders in Female Servicemembers

Herein, we discuss 3 of the most common hair and scalp disorders linked to grooming practices utilized by women to meet prior military regulations: trichorrhexis nodosa (TN), extracranial headaches, and traction alopecia (TA). It is essential that health care providers are able to promptly recognize these conditions, understand their risk factors, and be familiar with first-line treatment options. With these new standards, the hope is that the incidence of the following conditions decreases, thus improving servicemembers’ medical readiness and overall quality of life.

Trichorrhexis Nodosa
Acquired TN is a defect in the hair shaft that causes the hair to break easily secondary to chemical, thermal, or mechanical trauma. This can include but is not limited to chemical relaxers, blow-dryers, excessive brushing or styling, flat irons, and tightly packed hairstyles. The condition is characterized by a thickened hair diameter and splitting at the tip. Clinically, it may present as brittle, lusterless, broken hair with split ends, as well as a positive tug test.¹⁴ Management includes gentle hair care and avoidance of harsh hair care practices and treatments.

Extracranial Headaches
Headaches are a common concern among military servicemembers¹⁵ and generally are classified as primary or secondary. A less commonly discussed primary headache disorder includes external-pressure headaches, which result from either sustained compression or traction of the soft tissues of the scalp, usually from wearing headbands, helmets, or tight hairstyles.¹⁶ Additional at-risk groups include those who chronically wear surgical scrub caps or flight caps, especially if clipped or pinned to the hair. In our 38 years of combined military clinical experience, we can attest that these types of headaches are common among female servicemembers. The diagnostic criteria for an external-pressure headache, commonly referred to by patients as a “ponytail headache,” includes at least 2 headache episodes triggered within 1 hour of sustained traction on the scalp, maximal at the site of traction and resolving within 1 hour after relieving the traction.¹⁶ Management includes removal of the pressure-causing source, usually a tight ponytail or bun.

Traction Alopecia
Traction alopecia is hair loss caused by repetitive or prolonged tension on the hair secondary to tight hairstyles. It can be clinically classified into 2 types: marginal and nonmarginal patchy alopecia (Figure 5).^13,17,18 Traction alopecia most commonly is found in individuals with ethnic hair, predominantly Black women. Hairstyles with the highest risk for causing TA include tight buns, ponytails, cornrows, weaves, and locs—all of which are utilized by female servicemembers to maintain a professional appearance and adhere to grooming regulations.^13,18 Other groups at risk include athletes (eg, ballerinas, gymnasts) and those with chronic headwear use (eg, turbans, helmets, nurse caps, wigs).¹⁸ Early TA typically presents with perifollicular erythema followed by follicular-based papules or pustules.^13,18 Marginal TA classically includes frontotemporal hair loss or thinning with or without a fringe sign.^17,18 Nonmarginal TA includes patchy alopecia most commonly involving the parietal or occipital scalp, seen with chignons, buns, ponytails, or the use of clips, extensions, or bobby pins.¹⁸ The first line in management is avoidance of traction-causing hairstyles or headgear. Medical therapy may be warranted and consists of a single agent or combination regimen to include oral or topical antibiotics, topical or intralesional steroids, and topical minoxidil.^13,18

Final Thoughts

Military hair-grooming standards have evolved over time. Recent changes show that the US Department of Defense is seriously evaluating policies that may be inherently exclusive. Prior grooming standards resulted in the widespread use of tight hairstyles and harsh hair treatments among female servicemembers with long hair. These practices resulted in TN, extracranial headaches, and TA, among other hair and scalp disorders. These occupational-related hair conditions impact female servicemembers’ mental and physical well-being and thus impact military readiness. Physicians should recognize that these conditions can be related to occupational grooming standards that may impact hair care practices.

The challenge that remains is a lack of standardized documentation for hair and scalp symptoms in the medical record. Due to a paucity in reporting and documentation, limited objective data exist to guide future recommendations for military grooming standards. Another obstacle is the lack of knowledge of hair diseases among primary care providers and patients, especially due to the underrepresentation of ethnic hair in medical textbooks.¹⁹ As a result, women frequently accept their hair symptoms as normal and either suffer through them, cut their hair short, or wear wigs before considering a visit to the doctor. Furthermore, hair-grooming standards can expose racial disparities, which are the driving force behind the current policy changes. Clinicians can strive to ask about hair and scalp symptoms and document the following in relation to hair and scalp disorders: occupational grooming requirements; skin and hair type; location, number, and size of scalp lesion(s); onset; duration; current and prior hair care practices; history of treatment; and clinical course accompanied with photographic documentation. Ultimately, improved awareness in patients, collaboration between physicians, and consistent clinical documentation can help create positive change and continued improvement in hair-grooming standards within the military. Improved reporting and documentation will facilitate further study into the effectiveness of the updated hair-grooming standards in female servicemembers.

The world is an increasingly diverse place, which has particular relevance for the dermatologist. Skin color plays a significant role in diagnostic approach, as there are important differences in how cutaneous disease presents in patients with skin of color (SOC). Therefore, education about these differences is imperative. In this review, we focus on allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) and patch testing in patients with SOC. We discuss allergens common to this demographic and challenges encountered in patch testing patients with SOC. We also identify key health care disparities in the evaluation and management of ACD in this population.

Has contact allergy in SOC populations been studied in North America?

Over the last 2 decades, there have been only a handful of North American studies that address contact allergy in SOC populations. Patch test results from 114 Black patients and 877 White patients at the Cleveland Clinic from 1988 to 1991 showed that overall allergy frequency was relatively similar (43.0% vs 43.6%). There were notable differences in allergen sensitization. Paraphenylenediamine (PPD), which is used in hair dye, had more positive patch test reactions in Black patients (10.6% vs 4.5%), and both PPD (21.2% vs 4.2%) and imidazolidinyl urea, a formaldehyde-releasing preservative (9.1% vs 2.6%), were more frequently allergenic in Black men compared to White men.¹ Patch test results from the North American Contact Dermatitis Group from 1992 to 1998 described similar results, with minimal variation in the prevalence of ACD among 1014 Black and 8610 White patients (47%–49% vs 46%–49%).² Positive patch test reactions to PPD were higher in Black patients for 2 of 3 test cycles (13.5% vs 5.8% [1994-1996] and 10.3% vs 5.3% [1996-1998]). Positive patch test reactions were higher in White patients for dimethylol dimethyl hydantoin, a formaldehyde-releasing preservative, also for 2 of 3 test cycles (1.8% vs 0% [1992-1994] and 2.8% vs 0.3% [1994-1996]). Finally, positive patch test reactions to thioureas (rubber accelerators) had a mixed picture: 2 test cycles were higher in Black patients (1.9% vs 1.0% [1992-1994] and 1.3% vs 0.7% [1994-1996]), but the third cycle (1996-1998) was lower (0.7% vs 1.4%). Positive patch test reactions to the metal cobalt chloride were higher in Black patients in just 1 test cycle (9.2% vs 6.6% [1992-1994]). The authors suggested that the use of darker hair dyes in the Black community may lead to more sensitization to PPD. They also theorized that this population’s more frequent use of ointment-based skin care products may make them less susceptible to sensitization to preservatives such as formaldehyde, which more commonly are found in water-based products such as creams. They concluded that differences in sensitization patterns likely were driven by cultural practices affecting exposures.²

In 2016, the North American Contact Dermatitis Group reported patch test results in 434 Black and 6634 White patients (1998-2006).³ Again, ACD prevalence was about the same in both groups (45.9% vs 43.6%). However, they reported several allergens with different reaction patterns. Black patients had higher risk ratios (RRs) for 3 rubber accelerators: mercaptobenzothiazole (RR, 2.10), mercapto mix (RR, 2.27), and thiuram mix (RR, 1.44). They also reacted to PPD (RR, 1.56) and the antibiotic bacitracin (RR, 1.34) at higher frequencies than White patients, who more frequently reacted to formaldehyde (RR, 0.58); the formaldehyde-releasing preservatives quaternium-15 (RR, 0.63) and diazolidinyl urea (in petrolatum: RR, 0.44; aqueous: RR, 0.47); the clothing finish ethylene urea melamine formalin resin (RR, 0.45); and the fragrances fragrance mix 1 (RR, 0.65) and balsam of Peru (RR, 0.55).³

Patch testing of 139 African American or Black patients at the Cleveland Clinic (2003-2012) revealed that this population most commonly had positive reactions to nickel (27.5%), fragrance mix (18.1%), bacitracin (13.0%), balsam of Peru (12.3%), and PPD (10.9%). The authors highlighted unique features of physical examination in patients with darker skin types, including lichenification and/or hyperpigmentation in those with ACD and the potential for lack of erythema and/or a papular reaction with patch test readings.⁴ Recently, data was presented at the American Contact Dermatitis Society Annual Meeting (March 2021) on patterns of ACD in Black and White patch tested patients in Philadelphia (2009-2019).⁵ Using the North American 80 comprehensive series, the researchers documented statistically significant differences in allergen sensitivity between the 2 groups. Black patients reacted to disperse blue dye (P=.019) and textile dye mix (P=.001) at higher frequencies. There was a nonsignificant trend of more frequent positive reactions to PPD in Black patients (11% vs 6%).⁵

Notably, all of these studies examined only 1 or 2 racial groups with a focus on Black patients. Some authors commented that this was due to low numbers of Hispanic, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Native American patients in tested populations.^2,3,5 With approximately 13% of the US population self-identifying as Black,⁶ these patients and other minority races typically are underrepresented in large patch test studies. More data on patch test results for these groups is necessary for a complete understanding of patch testing in patients with SOC.

What are the challenges in patch testing SOC populations?

Patch testing in patients with SOC requires additional skills and experience. Darker skin does not reveal erythema as strikingly as lighter skin, making it more difficult to appreciate subtle color changes. Moreover, multiple studies have shown that ACD can have different presentations in Black patients.^4,7,8 Lichenification and hyperpigmentation may be early signs of ACD in comparison to bright erythema and vesicles that can be seen in lighter skin types. It also has been reported that scalp ACD can be mistaken for seborrheic dermatitis due to lack of erythema.⁷ Without a high degree of clinical suspicion, a diagnosis of ACD can be missed in this patient population.

Patch test interpretation also can be challenging in patients with SOC. An early papular or follicular eruption with minimal erythema can signal a positive reaction.^4,7 Because of these potentially subtle changes, patch testers should exercise care and attention when reading results for SOC populations. We recommend ample side lighting, palpation for adequate identification of positive reactions, and double-checking for positives that may have been overlooked on the initial review of findings.^4,7

What health care disparities impact the evaluation and management of ACD?

There are many factors at play in this dialogue. The challenges we identified in diagnosing ACD in darker skin types are important to consider. Lack of familiarity with these unique features can lead to a delay in diagnosis and ultimately a delay in referral for patch testing. This is where dermatology training can help fill in the gap, but are the majority of programs equipped to do so? Inadequate education and exposure to patients with SOC is an issue for many dermatology residency programs. Surveys of residents and program directors in geographically less diverse regions may not receive adequate education or exposure to patients with SOC.⁹ Further, there is a lack of representation of SOC images for general dermatologic conditions in textbooks,^10,11 which has a profound impact on the dermatologist’s ability to recognize common diseases in darker skin types. A 2019 survey of more than 5000 images from 2 dermatology textbooks showed SOC images comprised 22% to 32% of the total images.¹¹ However, SOC images are overrepresented in textbooks for sexually transmitted infections, constituting 47% to 58% of the images; they made up 28% of images for nonvenereal infections.¹¹ Why is that? In this article, we have shown the prevalence of ACD to be nearly equivalent in Black and White patients, yet a perusal of ACD images in dermatology textbooks will tell a different story. This trend deserves our attention; perhaps it is highlighting patterns of systemic racism seen in medicine. If our primary teaching materials are perpetuating stereotypes, we must consider the impact this can have on our personal implicit biases and the health care disparities that can ensue.

Additional factors impact time to diagnosis of ACD and referral for patch testing. A retrospective study examining distance to a North Carolina patch test referral clinic showed that patients living further from the clinic experienced a longer duration of dermatitis prior to patch test consultation and tended to live in areas with a higher county poverty rate.¹² Specifically, a 17.9% increase (P<.001) in the median duration of dermatitis was observed for every 50-mile increase in distance to the patch test clinic. County poverty rate was measured by the percentage of residents living below the poverty threshold; for every 5% increase in county poverty rate, a 16.3% increase (P<.032) in duration of dermatitis was found.¹²

These data highlight a relationship with which many dermatologists are familiar and underscore a need for dermatologists to practice in areas that are more geographically accessible. The recently increased utilization of telehealth modalities can potentially help to bridge this gap by decreasing delays in diagnosis and providing more affordable options for evaluation by a dermatologist for patients with socioeconomic obstacles.

Final Interpretation

The prevalence of ACD among Black and White patients is similar; however, there are important differences in patch test reaction frequencies that may be related to the diverse exposure patterns for each group. Additionally, patients with SOC may have unique clinical presentations of ACD, such as lichenification and hyperpigmentation. Darker skin types also may require specialized techniques for accurate patch test readings. It is imperative that dermatologists are trained to recognize all of these features. Health care disparities come in many forms and, in this setting, can result in delayed referral for patch testing. Additional studies are needed to further examine these health care disparities and identify potential solutions.

The world is an increasingly diverse place, which has particular relevance for the dermatologist. Skin color plays a significant role in diagnostic approach, as there are important differences in how cutaneous disease presents in patients with skin of color (SOC). Therefore, education about these differences is imperative. In this review, we focus on allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) and patch testing in patients with SOC. We discuss allergens common to this demographic and challenges encountered in patch testing patients with SOC. We also identify key health care disparities in the evaluation and management of ACD in this population.

Has contact allergy in SOC populations been studied in North America?

Over the last 2 decades, there have been only a handful of North American studies that address contact allergy in SOC populations. Patch test results from 114 Black patients and 877 White patients at the Cleveland Clinic from 1988 to 1991 showed that overall allergy frequency was relatively similar (43.0% vs 43.6%). There were notable differences in allergen sensitization. Paraphenylenediamine (PPD), which is used in hair dye, had more positive patch test reactions in Black patients (10.6% vs 4.5%), and both PPD (21.2% vs 4.2%) and imidazolidinyl urea, a formaldehyde-releasing preservative (9.1% vs 2.6%), were more frequently allergenic in Black men compared to White men.¹ Patch test results from the North American Contact Dermatitis Group from 1992 to 1998 described similar results, with minimal variation in the prevalence of ACD among 1014 Black and 8610 White patients (47%–49% vs 46%–49%).² Positive patch test reactions to PPD were higher in Black patients for 2 of 3 test cycles (13.5% vs 5.8% [1994-1996] and 10.3% vs 5.3% [1996-1998]). Positive patch test reactions were higher in White patients for dimethylol dimethyl hydantoin, a formaldehyde-releasing preservative, also for 2 of 3 test cycles (1.8% vs 0% [1992-1994] and 2.8% vs 0.3% [1994-1996]). Finally, positive patch test reactions to thioureas (rubber accelerators) had a mixed picture: 2 test cycles were higher in Black patients (1.9% vs 1.0% [1992-1994] and 1.3% vs 0.7% [1994-1996]), but the third cycle (1996-1998) was lower (0.7% vs 1.4%). Positive patch test reactions to the metal cobalt chloride were higher in Black patients in just 1 test cycle (9.2% vs 6.6% [1992-1994]). The authors suggested that the use of darker hair dyes in the Black community may lead to more sensitization to PPD. They also theorized that this population’s more frequent use of ointment-based skin care products may make them less susceptible to sensitization to preservatives such as formaldehyde, which more commonly are found in water-based products such as creams. They concluded that differences in sensitization patterns likely were driven by cultural practices affecting exposures.²

In 2016, the North American Contact Dermatitis Group reported patch test results in 434 Black and 6634 White patients (1998-2006).³ Again, ACD prevalence was about the same in both groups (45.9% vs 43.6%). However, they reported several allergens with different reaction patterns. Black patients had higher risk ratios (RRs) for 3 rubber accelerators: mercaptobenzothiazole (RR, 2.10), mercapto mix (RR, 2.27), and thiuram mix (RR, 1.44). They also reacted to PPD (RR, 1.56) and the antibiotic bacitracin (RR, 1.34) at higher frequencies than White patients, who more frequently reacted to formaldehyde (RR, 0.58); the formaldehyde-releasing preservatives quaternium-15 (RR, 0.63) and diazolidinyl urea (in petrolatum: RR, 0.44; aqueous: RR, 0.47); the clothing finish ethylene urea melamine formalin resin (RR, 0.45); and the fragrances fragrance mix 1 (RR, 0.65) and balsam of Peru (RR, 0.55).³

Patch testing of 139 African American or Black patients at the Cleveland Clinic (2003-2012) revealed that this population most commonly had positive reactions to nickel (27.5%), fragrance mix (18.1%), bacitracin (13.0%), balsam of Peru (12.3%), and PPD (10.9%). The authors highlighted unique features of physical examination in patients with darker skin types, including lichenification and/or hyperpigmentation in those with ACD and the potential for lack of erythema and/or a papular reaction with patch test readings.⁴ Recently, data was presented at the American Contact Dermatitis Society Annual Meeting (March 2021) on patterns of ACD in Black and White patch tested patients in Philadelphia (2009-2019).⁵ Using the North American 80 comprehensive series, the researchers documented statistically significant differences in allergen sensitivity between the 2 groups. Black patients reacted to disperse blue dye (P=.019) and textile dye mix (P=.001) at higher frequencies. There was a nonsignificant trend of more frequent positive reactions to PPD in Black patients (11% vs 6%).⁵

Notably, all of these studies examined only 1 or 2 racial groups with a focus on Black patients. Some authors commented that this was due to low numbers of Hispanic, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Native American patients in tested populations.^2,3,5 With approximately 13% of the US population self-identifying as Black,⁶ these patients and other minority races typically are underrepresented in large patch test studies. More data on patch test results for these groups is necessary for a complete understanding of patch testing in patients with SOC.

What are the challenges in patch testing SOC populations?

Patch testing in patients with SOC requires additional skills and experience. Darker skin does not reveal erythema as strikingly as lighter skin, making it more difficult to appreciate subtle color changes. Moreover, multiple studies have shown that ACD can have different presentations in Black patients.^4,7,8 Lichenification and hyperpigmentation may be early signs of ACD in comparison to bright erythema and vesicles that can be seen in lighter skin types. It also has been reported that scalp ACD can be mistaken for seborrheic dermatitis due to lack of erythema.⁷ Without a high degree of clinical suspicion, a diagnosis of ACD can be missed in this patient population.

Patch test interpretation also can be challenging in patients with SOC. An early papular or follicular eruption with minimal erythema can signal a positive reaction.^4,7 Because of these potentially subtle changes, patch testers should exercise care and attention when reading results for SOC populations. We recommend ample side lighting, palpation for adequate identification of positive reactions, and double-checking for positives that may have been overlooked on the initial review of findings.^4,7

What health care disparities impact the evaluation and management of ACD?

There are many factors at play in this dialogue. The challenges we identified in diagnosing ACD in darker skin types are important to consider. Lack of familiarity with these unique features can lead to a delay in diagnosis and ultimately a delay in referral for patch testing. This is where dermatology training can help fill in the gap, but are the majority of programs equipped to do so? Inadequate education and exposure to patients with SOC is an issue for many dermatology residency programs. Surveys of residents and program directors in geographically less diverse regions may not receive adequate education or exposure to patients with SOC.⁹ Further, there is a lack of representation of SOC images for general dermatologic conditions in textbooks,^10,11 which has a profound impact on the dermatologist’s ability to recognize common diseases in darker skin types. A 2019 survey of more than 5000 images from 2 dermatology textbooks showed SOC images comprised 22% to 32% of the total images.¹¹ However, SOC images are overrepresented in textbooks for sexually transmitted infections, constituting 47% to 58% of the images; they made up 28% of images for nonvenereal infections.¹¹ Why is that? In this article, we have shown the prevalence of ACD to be nearly equivalent in Black and White patients, yet a perusal of ACD images in dermatology textbooks will tell a different story. This trend deserves our attention; perhaps it is highlighting patterns of systemic racism seen in medicine. If our primary teaching materials are perpetuating stereotypes, we must consider the impact this can have on our personal implicit biases and the health care disparities that can ensue.

Additional factors impact time to diagnosis of ACD and referral for patch testing. A retrospective study examining distance to a North Carolina patch test referral clinic showed that patients living further from the clinic experienced a longer duration of dermatitis prior to patch test consultation and tended to live in areas with a higher county poverty rate.¹² Specifically, a 17.9% increase (P<.001) in the median duration of dermatitis was observed for every 50-mile increase in distance to the patch test clinic. County poverty rate was measured by the percentage of residents living below the poverty threshold; for every 5% increase in county poverty rate, a 16.3% increase (P<.032) in duration of dermatitis was found.¹²

These data highlight a relationship with which many dermatologists are familiar and underscore a need for dermatologists to practice in areas that are more geographically accessible. The recently increased utilization of telehealth modalities can potentially help to bridge this gap by decreasing delays in diagnosis and providing more affordable options for evaluation by a dermatologist for patients with socioeconomic obstacles.

Final Interpretation

The prevalence of ACD among Black and White patients is similar; however, there are important differences in patch test reaction frequencies that may be related to the diverse exposure patterns for each group. Additionally, patients with SOC may have unique clinical presentations of ACD, such as lichenification and hyperpigmentation. Darker skin types also may require specialized techniques for accurate patch test readings. It is imperative that dermatologists are trained to recognize all of these features. Health care disparities come in many forms and, in this setting, can result in delayed referral for patch testing. Additional studies are needed to further examine these health care disparities and identify potential solutions.

The world is an increasingly diverse place, which has particular relevance for the dermatologist. Skin color plays a significant role in diagnostic approach, as there are important differences in how cutaneous disease presents in patients with skin of color (SOC). Therefore, education about these differences is imperative. In this review, we focus on allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) and patch testing in patients with SOC. We discuss allergens common to this demographic and challenges encountered in patch testing patients with SOC. We also identify key health care disparities in the evaluation and management of ACD in this population.

Has contact allergy in SOC populations been studied in North America?

Over the last 2 decades, there have been only a handful of North American studies that address contact allergy in SOC populations. Patch test results from 114 Black patients and 877 White patients at the Cleveland Clinic from 1988 to 1991 showed that overall allergy frequency was relatively similar (43.0% vs 43.6%). There were notable differences in allergen sensitization. Paraphenylenediamine (PPD), which is used in hair dye, had more positive patch test reactions in Black patients (10.6% vs 4.5%), and both PPD (21.2% vs 4.2%) and imidazolidinyl urea, a formaldehyde-releasing preservative (9.1% vs 2.6%), were more frequently allergenic in Black men compared to White men.¹ Patch test results from the North American Contact Dermatitis Group from 1992 to 1998 described similar results, with minimal variation in the prevalence of ACD among 1014 Black and 8610 White patients (47%–49% vs 46%–49%).² Positive patch test reactions to PPD were higher in Black patients for 2 of 3 test cycles (13.5% vs 5.8% [1994-1996] and 10.3% vs 5.3% [1996-1998]). Positive patch test reactions were higher in White patients for dimethylol dimethyl hydantoin, a formaldehyde-releasing preservative, also for 2 of 3 test cycles (1.8% vs 0% [1992-1994] and 2.8% vs 0.3% [1994-1996]). Finally, positive patch test reactions to thioureas (rubber accelerators) had a mixed picture: 2 test cycles were higher in Black patients (1.9% vs 1.0% [1992-1994] and 1.3% vs 0.7% [1994-1996]), but the third cycle (1996-1998) was lower (0.7% vs 1.4%). Positive patch test reactions to the metal cobalt chloride were higher in Black patients in just 1 test cycle (9.2% vs 6.6% [1992-1994]). The authors suggested that the use of darker hair dyes in the Black community may lead to more sensitization to PPD. They also theorized that this population’s more frequent use of ointment-based skin care products may make them less susceptible to sensitization to preservatives such as formaldehyde, which more commonly are found in water-based products such as creams. They concluded that differences in sensitization patterns likely were driven by cultural practices affecting exposures.²

In 2016, the North American Contact Dermatitis Group reported patch test results in 434 Black and 6634 White patients (1998-2006).³ Again, ACD prevalence was about the same in both groups (45.9% vs 43.6%). However, they reported several allergens with different reaction patterns. Black patients had higher risk ratios (RRs) for 3 rubber accelerators: mercaptobenzothiazole (RR, 2.10), mercapto mix (RR, 2.27), and thiuram mix (RR, 1.44). They also reacted to PPD (RR, 1.56) and the antibiotic bacitracin (RR, 1.34) at higher frequencies than White patients, who more frequently reacted to formaldehyde (RR, 0.58); the formaldehyde-releasing preservatives quaternium-15 (RR, 0.63) and diazolidinyl urea (in petrolatum: RR, 0.44; aqueous: RR, 0.47); the clothing finish ethylene urea melamine formalin resin (RR, 0.45); and the fragrances fragrance mix 1 (RR, 0.65) and balsam of Peru (RR, 0.55).³

Patch testing of 139 African American or Black patients at the Cleveland Clinic (2003-2012) revealed that this population most commonly had positive reactions to nickel (27.5%), fragrance mix (18.1%), bacitracin (13.0%), balsam of Peru (12.3%), and PPD (10.9%). The authors highlighted unique features of physical examination in patients with darker skin types, including lichenification and/or hyperpigmentation in those with ACD and the potential for lack of erythema and/or a papular reaction with patch test readings.⁴ Recently, data was presented at the American Contact Dermatitis Society Annual Meeting (March 2021) on patterns of ACD in Black and White patch tested patients in Philadelphia (2009-2019).⁵ Using the North American 80 comprehensive series, the researchers documented statistically significant differences in allergen sensitivity between the 2 groups. Black patients reacted to disperse blue dye (P=.019) and textile dye mix (P=.001) at higher frequencies. There was a nonsignificant trend of more frequent positive reactions to PPD in Black patients (11% vs 6%).⁵

Notably, all of these studies examined only 1 or 2 racial groups with a focus on Black patients. Some authors commented that this was due to low numbers of Hispanic, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Native American patients in tested populations.^2,3,5 With approximately 13% of the US population self-identifying as Black,⁶ these patients and other minority races typically are underrepresented in large patch test studies. More data on patch test results for these groups is necessary for a complete understanding of patch testing in patients with SOC.

What are the challenges in patch testing SOC populations?

Patch testing in patients with SOC requires additional skills and experience. Darker skin does not reveal erythema as strikingly as lighter skin, making it more difficult to appreciate subtle color changes. Moreover, multiple studies have shown that ACD can have different presentations in Black patients.^4,7,8 Lichenification and hyperpigmentation may be early signs of ACD in comparison to bright erythema and vesicles that can be seen in lighter skin types. It also has been reported that scalp ACD can be mistaken for seborrheic dermatitis due to lack of erythema.⁷ Without a high degree of clinical suspicion, a diagnosis of ACD can be missed in this patient population.

Patch test interpretation also can be challenging in patients with SOC. An early papular or follicular eruption with minimal erythema can signal a positive reaction.^4,7 Because of these potentially subtle changes, patch testers should exercise care and attention when reading results for SOC populations. We recommend ample side lighting, palpation for adequate identification of positive reactions, and double-checking for positives that may have been overlooked on the initial review of findings.^4,7

What health care disparities impact the evaluation and management of ACD?

There are many factors at play in this dialogue. The challenges we identified in diagnosing ACD in darker skin types are important to consider. Lack of familiarity with these unique features can lead to a delay in diagnosis and ultimately a delay in referral for patch testing. This is where dermatology training can help fill in the gap, but are the majority of programs equipped to do so? Inadequate education and exposure to patients with SOC is an issue for many dermatology residency programs. Surveys of residents and program directors in geographically less diverse regions may not receive adequate education or exposure to patients with SOC.⁹ Further, there is a lack of representation of SOC images for general dermatologic conditions in textbooks,^10,11 which has a profound impact on the dermatologist’s ability to recognize common diseases in darker skin types. A 2019 survey of more than 5000 images from 2 dermatology textbooks showed SOC images comprised 22% to 32% of the total images.¹¹ However, SOC images are overrepresented in textbooks for sexually transmitted infections, constituting 47% to 58% of the images; they made up 28% of images for nonvenereal infections.¹¹ Why is that? In this article, we have shown the prevalence of ACD to be nearly equivalent in Black and White patients, yet a perusal of ACD images in dermatology textbooks will tell a different story. This trend deserves our attention; perhaps it is highlighting patterns of systemic racism seen in medicine. If our primary teaching materials are perpetuating stereotypes, we must consider the impact this can have on our personal implicit biases and the health care disparities that can ensue.

Additional factors impact time to diagnosis of ACD and referral for patch testing. A retrospective study examining distance to a North Carolina patch test referral clinic showed that patients living further from the clinic experienced a longer duration of dermatitis prior to patch test consultation and tended to live in areas with a higher county poverty rate.¹² Specifically, a 17.9% increase (P<.001) in the median duration of dermatitis was observed for every 50-mile increase in distance to the patch test clinic. County poverty rate was measured by the percentage of residents living below the poverty threshold; for every 5% increase in county poverty rate, a 16.3% increase (P<.032) in duration of dermatitis was found.¹²

These data highlight a relationship with which many dermatologists are familiar and underscore a need for dermatologists to practice in areas that are more geographically accessible. The recently increased utilization of telehealth modalities can potentially help to bridge this gap by decreasing delays in diagnosis and providing more affordable options for evaluation by a dermatologist for patients with socioeconomic obstacles.

Final Interpretation

The prevalence of ACD among Black and White patients is similar; however, there are important differences in patch test reaction frequencies that may be related to the diverse exposure patterns for each group. Additionally, patients with SOC may have unique clinical presentations of ACD, such as lichenification and hyperpigmentation. Darker skin types also may require specialized techniques for accurate patch test readings. It is imperative that dermatologists are trained to recognize all of these features. Health care disparities come in many forms and, in this setting, can result in delayed referral for patch testing. Additional studies are needed to further examine these health care disparities and identify potential solutions.