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Aquatic Antagonists: Scorpionfish Envenomation
Author(s)
Shawn Afvari, BS
Dirk M. Elston, MD

With the growing popularity of water sports and a proliferation of invasive species, human injuries from marine animal envenomation continue to rise.1-3 Members of the scorpionfish family Scorpaenidae are second only to stingrays as the leading cause of the 40,000 to 50,000 injuries annually from marine life worldwide.4 Because scorpionfish represent a growing threat and competition with native species, it has been suggested that they could replace endangered species on restaurant menus.5-8 Scorpionfish have been introduced by humans from tropical to temperate seas and are now common off the coast of California and the eastern coast from New York to Florida, as well as in the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and off the southern coast of Brazil. Victims of scorpionfish stings experience considerable pain and may require days to weeks to fully recover, highlighting the socioeconomic costs and burden of scorpionfish envenomation.9,10 Fishers, divers, swimmers, and aquarium owners are most often affected.

Family

The common term scorpionfish refers to both the family Scorpaenidae and the genus Scorpaena. Members of this family possess similar dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins, though they vary between genera in their size and the potency of the venom they insulate. Other familiar members include the genus Pterois (lionfish) and Synanceja (stonefish). Synanceja are the most venomous within the group, but scorpionfish stings more commonly arise from Pterois and Scorpaena.8 Because of the rare shapes and vibrant colors of scorpionfish, some traders and aquarium owners will seek and pay high prices for these fish, providing further opportunity for envenomation.11,12

Characteristics

Scorpionfish have with a high variation in color, ranging from lighter grays to intense reds depending on their geographic location and habitat. Synanceja are bland in coloration, blending in with rocks and gravel, but the more dramatic-appearing Scorpaena exhibit a large cranium and wide range of multicolored patterns (Figure 1).13Pterois serve as the most conspicuous member of the group with brightly colored red and white stripes (Figure 2). Scorpionfish commonly grow up to 19 inches long and boast 12 dorsal, 2 pelvic, and 3 anal spines housing 5 to 10 mg of venom.14 An integumentary sheath encapsulates each spine housing the glandular tissue that produces the potent venom.

Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa).
Photograph courtesy of Sylvain Le Bris (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Republished under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC 4.0).
FIGURE 1. Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa).

Toxin Properties

Unlike Pterois and Synanceja, Scorpaena do not have venom ducts around their glands, complicating the work of marine biologists aiming to extract and study the venomous toxins. Several studies have managed to isolate scorpionfish venom and overcome its unstable heat-labile nature to investigate its biologic properties.15-20 Several high-molecular-weight proteins (50–800 kDa) comprise the venom, including hyaluronidase, integrin-inhibiting factors, capillary permeability factor, proteases, and some less-understood cytolytic toxins. These factors provoke the inflammatory, proteolytic, hemorrhagic, cardiovascular, and hemolytic biologic activities at both the local and systemic levels, directing damage to wounded tissues and inducing vascular and tissue permeability to reach cellular processes far and wide. Mediators of inflammation include tumor necrosis factor, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, followed by neutrophils and other mononuclear cells, initiating the immune response at the wound site. Toxin potency remains for up to 2 days after fish death.1

Lionfish (Pterois volitans).
Photograph courtesy of 808_Diver (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Republished under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC 4.0).
FIGURE 2. Lionfish (Pterois volitans).

Clinical Manifestation

Physicians may be guided by clinical symptoms in identifying scorpionfish stings, as the patient may not know the identity of their marine assailant. Initially, individuals punctured by scorpionfish spikes will experience an acute pain and burning sensation at the puncture site that may be accompanied by systemic symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia, hypotension, loss of consciousness, difficulty breathing, and delirium.9,21-23 The pain will intensify and radiate distal to the site of envenomation, and the wound may exhibit vesiculation, erythema, bruising, pallor, and notable edema.4,24 Pain intensity peaks at 30 to 90 minutes after envenomation, and other systemic symptoms generally last for 24 to 48 hours.25 If patients do not seek prompt treatment, secondary infection may ensue, and the lingering venom in the blister may cause dermal necrosis, paresthesia, and anesthesia. Chronic sequelae may include joint contractures, compartment syndrome, necrotic ulcers, and chronic neuropathy.1

Management

Treatment of scorpionfish stings primarily is palliative and aimed at symptom reduction. Patients should immediately treat wounds with hot but not scalding water immersion.26,27 Given the thermolabile components of scorpionfish venom, the most effective treatment is to soak the affected limb in water 42 °C to 45 °C for 30 to 90 minutes. Any higher temperature may pose risk for scalding burns. Children should be monitored throughout treatment.28 If hot water immersion does not provide relief, oral analgesics may be considered. Stonefish antivenom is available and may be used for any scorpionfish sting given the shared biologic properties between genera. Providers evaluating stings could use sterile irrigation to clean wounds and search for foreign bodies including spine fragments; probing should be accomplished by instruments rather than a gloved finger. Providers should consider culturing wounds and prescribing antibiotics for suspected secondary infections. A tetanus toxoid history also should be elicited, and patients may have a booster administered, as indicated.29

References
  1. Rensch G, Murphy-Lavoie HM. Lionfish, scorpionfish, and stonefish toxicity. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; May 10, 2022.
  2. Cearnal L. Red lionfish and ciguatoxin: menace spreading through western hemisphere. Ann Emerg Med. 2012;60:21A-22A. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2012.05.022
  3. Côté IM, Green SJ. Potential effects of climate change on a marine invasion: the importance of current context. Curr Zool. 2012;58:1-8. doi:10.1093/czoolo/58.1.1
  4. Venomology of scorpionfishes. In: Santhanam R. Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes. Academic Press; 2019:263-278.
  5. Ferri J, Staglicˇic´ N, Matić-Skoko S. The black scorpionfish, Scorpaena porcus (Scorpaenidae): could it serve as reliable indicator of Mediterranean coastal communities’ health? Ecol Indicators. 2012;18:25-30. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.11.004
  6. Santhanam R. Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes. Academic Press; 2019.
  7. Morris JA, Akins JL. Feeding ecology of invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) in the Bahamian Archipelago. Environ Biol Fishes. 2009;86:389-398. doi:10.1007/s10641-009-9538-8 
  8. Albins MA, Hixon MA. Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environ Biol Fishes. 2013;96:1151–1157. doi:10.1007/s10641-011-9795-1
  9. Haddad V Jr, Martins IA, Makyama HM. Injuries caused by scorpionfishes (Scorpaena plumieri Bloch, 1789 and Scorpaena brasiliensis Cuvier, 1829) in the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Brazilian coast): epidemiologic, clinic and therapeutic aspects of 23 stings in humans. Toxicon. 2003;42:79-83. doi:10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00103-x
  10. Campos FV, Menezes TN, Malacarne PF, et al. A review on the Scorpaena plumieri fish venom and its bioactive compounds. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2016;22:35. doi:10.1186/s40409-016-0090-7
  11. Needleman RK, Neylan IP, Erickson TB. Environmental and ecological effects of climate change on venomous marine and amphibious species in the wilderness. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018;29:343-356. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2018.04.003
  12. Aldred B, Erickson T, Lipscomb J. Lionfish envenomations in an urban wilderness. Wilderness Environ Med. 1996;7:291-296. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(1996)007[0291:leiauw]2.3.co;2
  13. Stewart J, Hughes JM. Life-history traits of the southern hemisphere eastern red scorpionfish, Scorpaena cardinalis (Scorpaenidae: Scorpaeninae). Mar Freshw Res. 2010;61:1290-1297. doi:10.1071/MF10040
  14. Auerbach PS. Marine envenomations. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:486-493. doi:10.1056/NEJM199108153250707
  15. Andrich F, Carnielli JB, Cassoli JS, et al. A potent vasoactive cytolysin isolated from Scorpaena plumieri scorpionfish venom. Toxicon. 2010;56:487-496. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.05.003
  16. Gomes HL, Andrich F, Mauad H, et al. Cardiovascular effects of scorpionfish (Scorpaena plumieri) venom. Toxicon. 2010;55(2-3):580-589. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.10.012
  17. Menezes TN, Carnielli JB, Gomes HL, et al. Local inflammatory response induced by scorpionfish Scorpaena plumieri venom in mice. Toxicon. 2012;60:4-11. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.03.008
  18. Schaeffer RC Jr, Carlson RW, Russell FE. Some chemical properties of the venom of the scorpionfish Scorpaena guttata. Toxicon. 1971;9:69-78. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(71)90045-6
  19. Khalil AM, Wahsha MA, Abu Khadra KM, et al. Biochemical and histopathological effects of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) venom in rats. Toxicon. 2018;142:45-51. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.12.052
  20. Mouchbahani-Constance S, Lesperance LS, Petitjean H, et al. Lionfish venom elicits pain predominantly through the activation of nonpeptidergic nociceptors. Pain. 2018;159:2255-2266. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001326
  21. Ottuso P. Aquatic dermatology: encounters with the denizens of the deep (and not so deep)—a review. part II: the vertebrates, single-celled organisms, and aquatic biotoxins. Int J Dermatol. 2013;52:268-278. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2011.05426.x
  22. Bayley HH. Injuries caused by scorpion fish. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1940;34:227-230. doi:10.1016/s0035-9203(40)90072-4
  23. González D. Epidemiological and clinical aspects of certain venomous animals of Spain. Toxicon. 1982;20:925-928. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(82)90080-0
  24. Halstead BW. Injurious effects from the sting of the scorpionfish, Scorpaena guttata. with report of a case. Calif Med. 1951;74:395-396.
  25. Vasievich MP, Villarreal JD, Tomecki KJ. Got the travel bug? a review of common infections, infestations, bites, and stings among returning travelers. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2016;17:451-462. doi:10.1007/s40257-016-0203-7
  26. Barnett S, Saggiomo S, Smout M, et al. Heat deactivation of the stonefish Synanceia horrida venom—implications for first-aid management. Diving Hyperb Med. 2017;47:155-158. doi:10.28920/dhm47.3.155-158
  27. Russell FE. Weever fish sting: the last word. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;287:981-982. doi:10.1136/bmj.287.6397.981-c
  28. Tomlinson H, Elston DM. Aquatic antagonists: lionfish (Pterois volitans). Cutis. 2018;102:232-234.
  29. Hornbeak KB, Auerbach PS. Marine envenomation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2017;35:321-337. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.004
Article PDF
CT113003133.pdf
Author and Disclosure Information

Shawn Afvari is from the New York Medical College School of Medicine, Valhalla. Dr. Elston is from the Department of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston.

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Correspondence: Shawn Afvari, BS (safvari@student.nymc.edu).

Issue
Cutis - 113(3)
Publications
MDedge Dermatology
Cutis
Topics
Wounds
Page Number
133-134,136
Sections
Environmental Dermatology
Author(s)
Shawn Afvari, BS
Dirk M. Elston, MD
Author(s)
Shawn Afvari, BS
Dirk M. Elston, MD
Author and Disclosure Information

Shawn Afvari is from the New York Medical College School of Medicine, Valhalla. Dr. Elston is from the Department of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston.

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Correspondence: Shawn Afvari, BS (safvari@student.nymc.edu).

Author and Disclosure Information

Shawn Afvari is from the New York Medical College School of Medicine, Valhalla. Dr. Elston is from the Department of Dermatology and Dermatologic Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston.

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Correspondence: Shawn Afvari, BS (safvari@student.nymc.edu).

Article PDF
CT113003133.pdf
Article PDF
CT113003133.pdf

With the growing popularity of water sports and a proliferation of invasive species, human injuries from marine animal envenomation continue to rise.1-3 Members of the scorpionfish family Scorpaenidae are second only to stingrays as the leading cause of the 40,000 to 50,000 injuries annually from marine life worldwide.4 Because scorpionfish represent a growing threat and competition with native species, it has been suggested that they could replace endangered species on restaurant menus.5-8 Scorpionfish have been introduced by humans from tropical to temperate seas and are now common off the coast of California and the eastern coast from New York to Florida, as well as in the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and off the southern coast of Brazil. Victims of scorpionfish stings experience considerable pain and may require days to weeks to fully recover, highlighting the socioeconomic costs and burden of scorpionfish envenomation.9,10 Fishers, divers, swimmers, and aquarium owners are most often affected.

Family

The common term scorpionfish refers to both the family Scorpaenidae and the genus Scorpaena. Members of this family possess similar dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins, though they vary between genera in their size and the potency of the venom they insulate. Other familiar members include the genus Pterois (lionfish) and Synanceja (stonefish). Synanceja are the most venomous within the group, but scorpionfish stings more commonly arise from Pterois and Scorpaena.8 Because of the rare shapes and vibrant colors of scorpionfish, some traders and aquarium owners will seek and pay high prices for these fish, providing further opportunity for envenomation.11,12

Characteristics

Scorpionfish have with a high variation in color, ranging from lighter grays to intense reds depending on their geographic location and habitat. Synanceja are bland in coloration, blending in with rocks and gravel, but the more dramatic-appearing Scorpaena exhibit a large cranium and wide range of multicolored patterns (Figure 1).13Pterois serve as the most conspicuous member of the group with brightly colored red and white stripes (Figure 2). Scorpionfish commonly grow up to 19 inches long and boast 12 dorsal, 2 pelvic, and 3 anal spines housing 5 to 10 mg of venom.14 An integumentary sheath encapsulates each spine housing the glandular tissue that produces the potent venom.

Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa).
Photograph courtesy of Sylvain Le Bris (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Republished under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC 4.0).
FIGURE 1. Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa).

Toxin Properties

Unlike Pterois and Synanceja, Scorpaena do not have venom ducts around their glands, complicating the work of marine biologists aiming to extract and study the venomous toxins. Several studies have managed to isolate scorpionfish venom and overcome its unstable heat-labile nature to investigate its biologic properties.15-20 Several high-molecular-weight proteins (50–800 kDa) comprise the venom, including hyaluronidase, integrin-inhibiting factors, capillary permeability factor, proteases, and some less-understood cytolytic toxins. These factors provoke the inflammatory, proteolytic, hemorrhagic, cardiovascular, and hemolytic biologic activities at both the local and systemic levels, directing damage to wounded tissues and inducing vascular and tissue permeability to reach cellular processes far and wide. Mediators of inflammation include tumor necrosis factor, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, followed by neutrophils and other mononuclear cells, initiating the immune response at the wound site. Toxin potency remains for up to 2 days after fish death.1

Lionfish (Pterois volitans).
Photograph courtesy of 808_Diver (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Republished under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC 4.0).
FIGURE 2. Lionfish (Pterois volitans).

Clinical Manifestation

Physicians may be guided by clinical symptoms in identifying scorpionfish stings, as the patient may not know the identity of their marine assailant. Initially, individuals punctured by scorpionfish spikes will experience an acute pain and burning sensation at the puncture site that may be accompanied by systemic symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia, hypotension, loss of consciousness, difficulty breathing, and delirium.9,21-23 The pain will intensify and radiate distal to the site of envenomation, and the wound may exhibit vesiculation, erythema, bruising, pallor, and notable edema.4,24 Pain intensity peaks at 30 to 90 minutes after envenomation, and other systemic symptoms generally last for 24 to 48 hours.25 If patients do not seek prompt treatment, secondary infection may ensue, and the lingering venom in the blister may cause dermal necrosis, paresthesia, and anesthesia. Chronic sequelae may include joint contractures, compartment syndrome, necrotic ulcers, and chronic neuropathy.1

Management

Treatment of scorpionfish stings primarily is palliative and aimed at symptom reduction. Patients should immediately treat wounds with hot but not scalding water immersion.26,27 Given the thermolabile components of scorpionfish venom, the most effective treatment is to soak the affected limb in water 42 °C to 45 °C for 30 to 90 minutes. Any higher temperature may pose risk for scalding burns. Children should be monitored throughout treatment.28 If hot water immersion does not provide relief, oral analgesics may be considered. Stonefish antivenom is available and may be used for any scorpionfish sting given the shared biologic properties between genera. Providers evaluating stings could use sterile irrigation to clean wounds and search for foreign bodies including spine fragments; probing should be accomplished by instruments rather than a gloved finger. Providers should consider culturing wounds and prescribing antibiotics for suspected secondary infections. A tetanus toxoid history also should be elicited, and patients may have a booster administered, as indicated.29

With the growing popularity of water sports and a proliferation of invasive species, human injuries from marine animal envenomation continue to rise.1-3 Members of the scorpionfish family Scorpaenidae are second only to stingrays as the leading cause of the 40,000 to 50,000 injuries annually from marine life worldwide.4 Because scorpionfish represent a growing threat and competition with native species, it has been suggested that they could replace endangered species on restaurant menus.5-8 Scorpionfish have been introduced by humans from tropical to temperate seas and are now common off the coast of California and the eastern coast from New York to Florida, as well as in the Caribbean, the Bahamas, and off the southern coast of Brazil. Victims of scorpionfish stings experience considerable pain and may require days to weeks to fully recover, highlighting the socioeconomic costs and burden of scorpionfish envenomation.9,10 Fishers, divers, swimmers, and aquarium owners are most often affected.

Family

The common term scorpionfish refers to both the family Scorpaenidae and the genus Scorpaena. Members of this family possess similar dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins, though they vary between genera in their size and the potency of the venom they insulate. Other familiar members include the genus Pterois (lionfish) and Synanceja (stonefish). Synanceja are the most venomous within the group, but scorpionfish stings more commonly arise from Pterois and Scorpaena.8 Because of the rare shapes and vibrant colors of scorpionfish, some traders and aquarium owners will seek and pay high prices for these fish, providing further opportunity for envenomation.11,12

Characteristics

Scorpionfish have with a high variation in color, ranging from lighter grays to intense reds depending on their geographic location and habitat. Synanceja are bland in coloration, blending in with rocks and gravel, but the more dramatic-appearing Scorpaena exhibit a large cranium and wide range of multicolored patterns (Figure 1).13Pterois serve as the most conspicuous member of the group with brightly colored red and white stripes (Figure 2). Scorpionfish commonly grow up to 19 inches long and boast 12 dorsal, 2 pelvic, and 3 anal spines housing 5 to 10 mg of venom.14 An integumentary sheath encapsulates each spine housing the glandular tissue that produces the potent venom.

Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa).
Photograph courtesy of Sylvain Le Bris (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Republished under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC 4.0).
FIGURE 1. Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa).

Toxin Properties

Unlike Pterois and Synanceja, Scorpaena do not have venom ducts around their glands, complicating the work of marine biologists aiming to extract and study the venomous toxins. Several studies have managed to isolate scorpionfish venom and overcome its unstable heat-labile nature to investigate its biologic properties.15-20 Several high-molecular-weight proteins (50–800 kDa) comprise the venom, including hyaluronidase, integrin-inhibiting factors, capillary permeability factor, proteases, and some less-understood cytolytic toxins. These factors provoke the inflammatory, proteolytic, hemorrhagic, cardiovascular, and hemolytic biologic activities at both the local and systemic levels, directing damage to wounded tissues and inducing vascular and tissue permeability to reach cellular processes far and wide. Mediators of inflammation include tumor necrosis factor, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, followed by neutrophils and other mononuclear cells, initiating the immune response at the wound site. Toxin potency remains for up to 2 days after fish death.1

Lionfish (Pterois volitans).
Photograph courtesy of 808_Diver (https://www.inaturalist.org/). Republished under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC 4.0).
FIGURE 2. Lionfish (Pterois volitans).

Clinical Manifestation

Physicians may be guided by clinical symptoms in identifying scorpionfish stings, as the patient may not know the identity of their marine assailant. Initially, individuals punctured by scorpionfish spikes will experience an acute pain and burning sensation at the puncture site that may be accompanied by systemic symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tachycardia, hypotension, loss of consciousness, difficulty breathing, and delirium.9,21-23 The pain will intensify and radiate distal to the site of envenomation, and the wound may exhibit vesiculation, erythema, bruising, pallor, and notable edema.4,24 Pain intensity peaks at 30 to 90 minutes after envenomation, and other systemic symptoms generally last for 24 to 48 hours.25 If patients do not seek prompt treatment, secondary infection may ensue, and the lingering venom in the blister may cause dermal necrosis, paresthesia, and anesthesia. Chronic sequelae may include joint contractures, compartment syndrome, necrotic ulcers, and chronic neuropathy.1

Management

Treatment of scorpionfish stings primarily is palliative and aimed at symptom reduction. Patients should immediately treat wounds with hot but not scalding water immersion.26,27 Given the thermolabile components of scorpionfish venom, the most effective treatment is to soak the affected limb in water 42 °C to 45 °C for 30 to 90 minutes. Any higher temperature may pose risk for scalding burns. Children should be monitored throughout treatment.28 If hot water immersion does not provide relief, oral analgesics may be considered. Stonefish antivenom is available and may be used for any scorpionfish sting given the shared biologic properties between genera. Providers evaluating stings could use sterile irrigation to clean wounds and search for foreign bodies including spine fragments; probing should be accomplished by instruments rather than a gloved finger. Providers should consider culturing wounds and prescribing antibiotics for suspected secondary infections. A tetanus toxoid history also should be elicited, and patients may have a booster administered, as indicated.29

References
  1. Rensch G, Murphy-Lavoie HM. Lionfish, scorpionfish, and stonefish toxicity. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; May 10, 2022.
  2. Cearnal L. Red lionfish and ciguatoxin: menace spreading through western hemisphere. Ann Emerg Med. 2012;60:21A-22A. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2012.05.022
  3. Côté IM, Green SJ. Potential effects of climate change on a marine invasion: the importance of current context. Curr Zool. 2012;58:1-8. doi:10.1093/czoolo/58.1.1
  4. Venomology of scorpionfishes. In: Santhanam R. Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes. Academic Press; 2019:263-278.
  5. Ferri J, Staglicˇic´ N, Matić-Skoko S. The black scorpionfish, Scorpaena porcus (Scorpaenidae): could it serve as reliable indicator of Mediterranean coastal communities’ health? Ecol Indicators. 2012;18:25-30. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.11.004
  6. Santhanam R. Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes. Academic Press; 2019.
  7. Morris JA, Akins JL. Feeding ecology of invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) in the Bahamian Archipelago. Environ Biol Fishes. 2009;86:389-398. doi:10.1007/s10641-009-9538-8 
  8. Albins MA, Hixon MA. Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environ Biol Fishes. 2013;96:1151–1157. doi:10.1007/s10641-011-9795-1
  9. Haddad V Jr, Martins IA, Makyama HM. Injuries caused by scorpionfishes (Scorpaena plumieri Bloch, 1789 and Scorpaena brasiliensis Cuvier, 1829) in the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Brazilian coast): epidemiologic, clinic and therapeutic aspects of 23 stings in humans. Toxicon. 2003;42:79-83. doi:10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00103-x
  10. Campos FV, Menezes TN, Malacarne PF, et al. A review on the Scorpaena plumieri fish venom and its bioactive compounds. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2016;22:35. doi:10.1186/s40409-016-0090-7
  11. Needleman RK, Neylan IP, Erickson TB. Environmental and ecological effects of climate change on venomous marine and amphibious species in the wilderness. Wilderness Environ Med. 2018;29:343-356. doi:10.1016/j.wem.2018.04.003
  12. Aldred B, Erickson T, Lipscomb J. Lionfish envenomations in an urban wilderness. Wilderness Environ Med. 1996;7:291-296. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(1996)007[0291:leiauw]2.3.co;2
  13. Stewart J, Hughes JM. Life-history traits of the southern hemisphere eastern red scorpionfish, Scorpaena cardinalis (Scorpaenidae: Scorpaeninae). Mar Freshw Res. 2010;61:1290-1297. doi:10.1071/MF10040
  14. Auerbach PS. Marine envenomations. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:486-493. doi:10.1056/NEJM199108153250707
  15. Andrich F, Carnielli JB, Cassoli JS, et al. A potent vasoactive cytolysin isolated from Scorpaena plumieri scorpionfish venom. Toxicon. 2010;56:487-496. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.05.003
  16. Gomes HL, Andrich F, Mauad H, et al. Cardiovascular effects of scorpionfish (Scorpaena plumieri) venom. Toxicon. 2010;55(2-3):580-589. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.10.012
  17. Menezes TN, Carnielli JB, Gomes HL, et al. Local inflammatory response induced by scorpionfish Scorpaena plumieri venom in mice. Toxicon. 2012;60:4-11. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.03.008
  18. Schaeffer RC Jr, Carlson RW, Russell FE. Some chemical properties of the venom of the scorpionfish Scorpaena guttata. Toxicon. 1971;9:69-78. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(71)90045-6
  19. Khalil AM, Wahsha MA, Abu Khadra KM, et al. Biochemical and histopathological effects of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) venom in rats. Toxicon. 2018;142:45-51. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.12.052
  20. Mouchbahani-Constance S, Lesperance LS, Petitjean H, et al. Lionfish venom elicits pain predominantly through the activation of nonpeptidergic nociceptors. Pain. 2018;159:2255-2266. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001326
  21. Ottuso P. Aquatic dermatology: encounters with the denizens of the deep (and not so deep)—a review. part II: the vertebrates, single-celled organisms, and aquatic biotoxins. Int J Dermatol. 2013;52:268-278. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2011.05426.x
  22. Bayley HH. Injuries caused by scorpion fish. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1940;34:227-230. doi:10.1016/s0035-9203(40)90072-4
  23. González D. Epidemiological and clinical aspects of certain venomous animals of Spain. Toxicon. 1982;20:925-928. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(82)90080-0
  24. Halstead BW. Injurious effects from the sting of the scorpionfish, Scorpaena guttata. with report of a case. Calif Med. 1951;74:395-396.
  25. Vasievich MP, Villarreal JD, Tomecki KJ. Got the travel bug? a review of common infections, infestations, bites, and stings among returning travelers. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2016;17:451-462. doi:10.1007/s40257-016-0203-7
  26. Barnett S, Saggiomo S, Smout M, et al. Heat deactivation of the stonefish Synanceia horrida venom—implications for first-aid management. Diving Hyperb Med. 2017;47:155-158. doi:10.28920/dhm47.3.155-158
  27. Russell FE. Weever fish sting: the last word. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;287:981-982. doi:10.1136/bmj.287.6397.981-c
  28. Tomlinson H, Elston DM. Aquatic antagonists: lionfish (Pterois volitans). Cutis. 2018;102:232-234.
  29. Hornbeak KB, Auerbach PS. Marine envenomation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2017;35:321-337. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.004
References
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  4. Venomology of scorpionfishes. In: Santhanam R. Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes. Academic Press; 2019:263-278.
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  6. Santhanam R. Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Scorpionfishes. Academic Press; 2019.
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  8. Albins MA, Hixon MA. Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environ Biol Fishes. 2013;96:1151–1157. doi:10.1007/s10641-011-9795-1
  9. Haddad V Jr, Martins IA, Makyama HM. Injuries caused by scorpionfishes (Scorpaena plumieri Bloch, 1789 and Scorpaena brasiliensis Cuvier, 1829) in the Southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Brazilian coast): epidemiologic, clinic and therapeutic aspects of 23 stings in humans. Toxicon. 2003;42:79-83. doi:10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00103-x
  10. Campos FV, Menezes TN, Malacarne PF, et al. A review on the Scorpaena plumieri fish venom and its bioactive compounds. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2016;22:35. doi:10.1186/s40409-016-0090-7
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  22. Bayley HH. Injuries caused by scorpion fish. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1940;34:227-230. doi:10.1016/s0035-9203(40)90072-4
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  25. Vasievich MP, Villarreal JD, Tomecki KJ. Got the travel bug? a review of common infections, infestations, bites, and stings among returning travelers. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2016;17:451-462. doi:10.1007/s40257-016-0203-7
  26. Barnett S, Saggiomo S, Smout M, et al. Heat deactivation of the stonefish Synanceia horrida venom—implications for first-aid management. Diving Hyperb Med. 2017;47:155-158. doi:10.28920/dhm47.3.155-158
  27. Russell FE. Weever fish sting: the last word. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;287:981-982. doi:10.1136/bmj.287.6397.981-c
  28. Tomlinson H, Elston DM. Aquatic antagonists: lionfish (Pterois volitans). Cutis. 2018;102:232-234.
  29. Hornbeak KB, Auerbach PS. Marine envenomation. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2017;35:321-337. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2016.12.004
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Cutis - 113(3)
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Cutis - 113(3)
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Aquatic Antagonists: Scorpionfish Envenomation
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Aquatic Antagonists: Scorpionfish Envenomation
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Practice Points

  • As some species of scorpionfish proliferate, providers may see an increase in envenomation cases.
  • Physicians should suspect scorpionfish stings based on clinical symptoms and physical examination.
  • Scorpionfish toxins are thermolabile, and patients can find symptom relief by immediately immersing the affected area in hot water (42 °C–45 °C) for 30 to 90 minutes.
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