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It has been known for decades that sex and gender cannot be determined solely by birth anatomy and chromosomes.1 Over the past decade, the medical community has been able to better understand the biologic underpinnings of gender identity, and we are gaining a better appreciation for the diversity of gender identities and gender expressions that exist.
Gender expression can be defined as the manner in which an individual chooses to present their gender to others through physical appearance and behaviors, such as style of hair or dress, voice or movement.2 Gender nonconformity (GNC) is when an individual’s gender expression does not fully conform with societal expectations often based on an individual’s sex assigned at birth. It is important to note that gender expression is independent of gender identity and may or may not align with gender identity. For example, a person whose sex assigned at birth is female may adopt hairstyles and clothing that are considered more masculine and enjoy activities that are typically associated with masculinity (for example, sports) yet identify as female. The majority of research to date focuses most on transgender individuals, broadly defined as those whose gender identity does not fully align with the sex assigned at birth.3,4 As our understanding of gender expression and GNC expands, more research is emerging on the prevalence of gender nonconformity in youth and potential associations with various health outcomes.
Stigma, discrimination, and harassment are known to have documented effects on health. GNC youth have been shown to experience discrimination and harassment at rates higher than their gender conforming peers.5,6 A recent study by Lowry et al. sought to examine the association between GNC and indicators of mental distress and substance use in adolescents.7 The authors analyzed a subset of cross-sectional data from more than 6,000 youth who had participated in the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance–United States, 2015 (YRBS) in three large urban school districts (two in California and one in Florida). In addition to the standard YRBS questions, students at these three school districts were asked about their gender expression using the following question: “A person’s appearance style, dress, or the way they walk or talk may affect how people describe them. How do you think people at your school would describe you?” Based on responses, youth were categorized on a 7-point GNC scale with 1 being most gender conforming (a very feminine female student or very masculine male student) to 7 being most GNC (a very masculine female student or a very feminine male student). The study sample was ethnically diverse with 16% of students identifying as white non-Hispanic, 19% identifying as black non-Hispanic, and 55% identifying as Hispanic of any race.
In the study population, approximately one in five students reported either moderate (students who described themselves as equally feminine and masculine) or high (female students who described themselves as very/mostly/somewhat masculine or male students who described themselves as very/mostly/somewhat feminine) levels of GNC. Among female students, moderate GNC was significantly associated with feeling sad and hopeless, seriously considering attempting suicide, and making a suicide plan. However, in female students substance use was not associated with GNC. Among male students, suicidal thoughts, plans, and attempts all demonstrated a linear increase with GNC, with the greatest prevalence occurring in male students expressing high levels of GNC. Prevalence of substance use, specifically nonmedical use of prescription drugs, cocaine use, methamphetamine use, heroin use, and intravenous drug also was associated with high GNC in male students. Study authors hypothesize that these differences occur because GNC male youth experience more overt harassment, compared with GNC female youth, but further study is needed.
Our understanding of the diversity of gender expressions present in youth populations continues to evolve. Findings from this study add to a growing body of evidence demonstrating a relatively high prevalence of GNC in youth populations, and potential health disparities these youth may face. This study underscores the need for continued study in this area. Family support and acceptance have been demonstrated to be strong protective factors for transgender-, lesbian-, and gay-identified youth. Studies identifying protective factors for GNC youth are needed.4
As health care providers, we need to continue to ask patients and families about gender identity and be aware of gender expression. When youth present as GNC, we should recognize that they may be at increased risk and, in addition to assessing overall mental health and risk for substance use, also assess for degree of social/familial support and potential stressors.4 We also should continue to advocate for support systems within schools sensitive to the needs of GNC students, as these may be a potential avenue to improve overall mental health for students. It is important to continue to expand our understanding of the diverse gender identities and expressions of the youth we serve. This hopefully will allow us to identify not only potential risk factors and health disparities, but also protective factors that can help better inform the development of effective interventions so all youth can reach their full potential.
Dr. Chelvakumar is an attending physician in the division of adolescent medicine at Nationwide Children’s Hospital and an assistant professor of clinical pediatrics at the Ohio State University, both in Columbus. Email her at pdnews@mdedge.com.
References
1. “WPATH (World Professional Association of Transgender Health) Board Responds to Federal Effort to Redefine Gender,” press release, Oct. 23, 2018.
2. “LGBTQ+ Definitions” at Trans Student Educational Resources.3. J Sex Res. 2013;50(3-4):299-317.
4. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 Nov 1;172(11):1010-1.
5. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers. 2016 Dec;3(4):489-98.
6. J Adolesc Health. 2016; 58(2)(supple):S1-2.
7. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 Nov;172(11):1020-8.
It has been known for decades that sex and gender cannot be determined solely by birth anatomy and chromosomes.1 Over the past decade, the medical community has been able to better understand the biologic underpinnings of gender identity, and we are gaining a better appreciation for the diversity of gender identities and gender expressions that exist.
Gender expression can be defined as the manner in which an individual chooses to present their gender to others through physical appearance and behaviors, such as style of hair or dress, voice or movement.2 Gender nonconformity (GNC) is when an individual’s gender expression does not fully conform with societal expectations often based on an individual’s sex assigned at birth. It is important to note that gender expression is independent of gender identity and may or may not align with gender identity. For example, a person whose sex assigned at birth is female may adopt hairstyles and clothing that are considered more masculine and enjoy activities that are typically associated with masculinity (for example, sports) yet identify as female. The majority of research to date focuses most on transgender individuals, broadly defined as those whose gender identity does not fully align with the sex assigned at birth.3,4 As our understanding of gender expression and GNC expands, more research is emerging on the prevalence of gender nonconformity in youth and potential associations with various health outcomes.
Stigma, discrimination, and harassment are known to have documented effects on health. GNC youth have been shown to experience discrimination and harassment at rates higher than their gender conforming peers.5,6 A recent study by Lowry et al. sought to examine the association between GNC and indicators of mental distress and substance use in adolescents.7 The authors analyzed a subset of cross-sectional data from more than 6,000 youth who had participated in the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance–United States, 2015 (YRBS) in three large urban school districts (two in California and one in Florida). In addition to the standard YRBS questions, students at these three school districts were asked about their gender expression using the following question: “A person’s appearance style, dress, or the way they walk or talk may affect how people describe them. How do you think people at your school would describe you?” Based on responses, youth were categorized on a 7-point GNC scale with 1 being most gender conforming (a very feminine female student or very masculine male student) to 7 being most GNC (a very masculine female student or a very feminine male student). The study sample was ethnically diverse with 16% of students identifying as white non-Hispanic, 19% identifying as black non-Hispanic, and 55% identifying as Hispanic of any race.
In the study population, approximately one in five students reported either moderate (students who described themselves as equally feminine and masculine) or high (female students who described themselves as very/mostly/somewhat masculine or male students who described themselves as very/mostly/somewhat feminine) levels of GNC. Among female students, moderate GNC was significantly associated with feeling sad and hopeless, seriously considering attempting suicide, and making a suicide plan. However, in female students substance use was not associated with GNC. Among male students, suicidal thoughts, plans, and attempts all demonstrated a linear increase with GNC, with the greatest prevalence occurring in male students expressing high levels of GNC. Prevalence of substance use, specifically nonmedical use of prescription drugs, cocaine use, methamphetamine use, heroin use, and intravenous drug also was associated with high GNC in male students. Study authors hypothesize that these differences occur because GNC male youth experience more overt harassment, compared with GNC female youth, but further study is needed.
Our understanding of the diversity of gender expressions present in youth populations continues to evolve. Findings from this study add to a growing body of evidence demonstrating a relatively high prevalence of GNC in youth populations, and potential health disparities these youth may face. This study underscores the need for continued study in this area. Family support and acceptance have been demonstrated to be strong protective factors for transgender-, lesbian-, and gay-identified youth. Studies identifying protective factors for GNC youth are needed.4
As health care providers, we need to continue to ask patients and families about gender identity and be aware of gender expression. When youth present as GNC, we should recognize that they may be at increased risk and, in addition to assessing overall mental health and risk for substance use, also assess for degree of social/familial support and potential stressors.4 We also should continue to advocate for support systems within schools sensitive to the needs of GNC students, as these may be a potential avenue to improve overall mental health for students. It is important to continue to expand our understanding of the diverse gender identities and expressions of the youth we serve. This hopefully will allow us to identify not only potential risk factors and health disparities, but also protective factors that can help better inform the development of effective interventions so all youth can reach their full potential.
Dr. Chelvakumar is an attending physician in the division of adolescent medicine at Nationwide Children’s Hospital and an assistant professor of clinical pediatrics at the Ohio State University, both in Columbus. Email her at pdnews@mdedge.com.
References
1. “WPATH (World Professional Association of Transgender Health) Board Responds to Federal Effort to Redefine Gender,” press release, Oct. 23, 2018.
2. “LGBTQ+ Definitions” at Trans Student Educational Resources.3. J Sex Res. 2013;50(3-4):299-317.
4. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 Nov 1;172(11):1010-1.
5. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers. 2016 Dec;3(4):489-98.
6. J Adolesc Health. 2016; 58(2)(supple):S1-2.
7. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 Nov;172(11):1020-8.
It has been known for decades that sex and gender cannot be determined solely by birth anatomy and chromosomes.1 Over the past decade, the medical community has been able to better understand the biologic underpinnings of gender identity, and we are gaining a better appreciation for the diversity of gender identities and gender expressions that exist.
Gender expression can be defined as the manner in which an individual chooses to present their gender to others through physical appearance and behaviors, such as style of hair or dress, voice or movement.2 Gender nonconformity (GNC) is when an individual’s gender expression does not fully conform with societal expectations often based on an individual’s sex assigned at birth. It is important to note that gender expression is independent of gender identity and may or may not align with gender identity. For example, a person whose sex assigned at birth is female may adopt hairstyles and clothing that are considered more masculine and enjoy activities that are typically associated with masculinity (for example, sports) yet identify as female. The majority of research to date focuses most on transgender individuals, broadly defined as those whose gender identity does not fully align with the sex assigned at birth.3,4 As our understanding of gender expression and GNC expands, more research is emerging on the prevalence of gender nonconformity in youth and potential associations with various health outcomes.
Stigma, discrimination, and harassment are known to have documented effects on health. GNC youth have been shown to experience discrimination and harassment at rates higher than their gender conforming peers.5,6 A recent study by Lowry et al. sought to examine the association between GNC and indicators of mental distress and substance use in adolescents.7 The authors analyzed a subset of cross-sectional data from more than 6,000 youth who had participated in the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance–United States, 2015 (YRBS) in three large urban school districts (two in California and one in Florida). In addition to the standard YRBS questions, students at these three school districts were asked about their gender expression using the following question: “A person’s appearance style, dress, or the way they walk or talk may affect how people describe them. How do you think people at your school would describe you?” Based on responses, youth were categorized on a 7-point GNC scale with 1 being most gender conforming (a very feminine female student or very masculine male student) to 7 being most GNC (a very masculine female student or a very feminine male student). The study sample was ethnically diverse with 16% of students identifying as white non-Hispanic, 19% identifying as black non-Hispanic, and 55% identifying as Hispanic of any race.
In the study population, approximately one in five students reported either moderate (students who described themselves as equally feminine and masculine) or high (female students who described themselves as very/mostly/somewhat masculine or male students who described themselves as very/mostly/somewhat feminine) levels of GNC. Among female students, moderate GNC was significantly associated with feeling sad and hopeless, seriously considering attempting suicide, and making a suicide plan. However, in female students substance use was not associated with GNC. Among male students, suicidal thoughts, plans, and attempts all demonstrated a linear increase with GNC, with the greatest prevalence occurring in male students expressing high levels of GNC. Prevalence of substance use, specifically nonmedical use of prescription drugs, cocaine use, methamphetamine use, heroin use, and intravenous drug also was associated with high GNC in male students. Study authors hypothesize that these differences occur because GNC male youth experience more overt harassment, compared with GNC female youth, but further study is needed.
Our understanding of the diversity of gender expressions present in youth populations continues to evolve. Findings from this study add to a growing body of evidence demonstrating a relatively high prevalence of GNC in youth populations, and potential health disparities these youth may face. This study underscores the need for continued study in this area. Family support and acceptance have been demonstrated to be strong protective factors for transgender-, lesbian-, and gay-identified youth. Studies identifying protective factors for GNC youth are needed.4
As health care providers, we need to continue to ask patients and families about gender identity and be aware of gender expression. When youth present as GNC, we should recognize that they may be at increased risk and, in addition to assessing overall mental health and risk for substance use, also assess for degree of social/familial support and potential stressors.4 We also should continue to advocate for support systems within schools sensitive to the needs of GNC students, as these may be a potential avenue to improve overall mental health for students. It is important to continue to expand our understanding of the diverse gender identities and expressions of the youth we serve. This hopefully will allow us to identify not only potential risk factors and health disparities, but also protective factors that can help better inform the development of effective interventions so all youth can reach their full potential.
Dr. Chelvakumar is an attending physician in the division of adolescent medicine at Nationwide Children’s Hospital and an assistant professor of clinical pediatrics at the Ohio State University, both in Columbus. Email her at pdnews@mdedge.com.
References
1. “WPATH (World Professional Association of Transgender Health) Board Responds to Federal Effort to Redefine Gender,” press release, Oct. 23, 2018.
2. “LGBTQ+ Definitions” at Trans Student Educational Resources.3. J Sex Res. 2013;50(3-4):299-317.
4. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 Nov 1;172(11):1010-1.
5. Psychol Sex Orientat Gend Divers. 2016 Dec;3(4):489-98.
6. J Adolesc Health. 2016; 58(2)(supple):S1-2.
7. JAMA Pediatr. 2018 Nov;172(11):1020-8.
