James B. Wood, MD

The Things We Do for No Reason (TWDFNR) series reviews practices which have become common parts of hospital care but which may provide little value to our patients. Practices reviewed in the TWDFNR series do not represent black and white conclusions or clinical practice standards, but are meant as a starting place for research and active discussions among hospitalists and patients. We invite you to be part of that discussion. https://www.choosingwisely.org/

A previously healthy 6‐year‐old boy presented to the emergency room with 3 days of right lower leg pain and fevers up to 102F. The leg pain had progressed until he refused to walk. The patient and family did not recall any trauma to the leg. In the emergency department, he had a blood culture drawn. Because he had elevated inflammatory markers and a negative x‐ray of his right leg, a magnetic resonance imaging scan of the right leg was obtained that revealed right tibial osteomyelitis. He was taken to the operating room for debridement. After obtaining blood and bone cultures, he was started on intravenous (IV) vancomycin. His blood and surgical cultures grew methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus, sensitive to clindamycin. Subsequent blood cultures were negative, and his inflammatory markers trended down shortly after starting therapy. As he clinically improved, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) was placed, and he was discharged home to complete a 6‐week course of IV vancomycin.

BACKGROUND

Osteoarticular infections (osteomyelitis and septic arthritis) are common problems in the pediatric population, affecting 1/2000 children annually and accounting for approximately 1% of all pediatric hospitalizations.[1, 2] Osteomyelitis can occur in children of all ages and usually requires hospitalization for diagnosis and initial management. The most common mechanism of infection in children is hematogenous inoculation of the bone during an episode of bacteremia (acute hematogenous osteomyelitis), particularly in young children, due to the highly vascular nature of the developing bone. Long bones, such as the femur, tibia, and humerus, are most commonly involved. Treatment of acute osteomyelitis requires prolonged administration of antimicrobial agents. Inadequately treated osteomyelitis can result in progression to chronic infection and loss of function of the affected bone.[3]

WHY YOU MIGHT THINK PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS AT DISCHARGE IS SUPERIOR TO ENTERAL THERAPY

In the United States, a large proportion of children with hematogenous osteomyelitis are discharged from the hospital with long‐term parenteral intravenous antibiotics through a PICC line.[3] The medical community historically favored parenteral therapy for young children with serious bacterial infections given concerns regarding impaired enteral absorption. As a result, children with osteomyelitis were initially stabilized in the hospital and discharged with parenteral therapy through a PICC line to continue or complete care, even when the organism was susceptible to a viable oral alternative such as clindamycin or cephalexin. Recommendations regarding the safety and timing to transition to oral antibiotics have been lacking. There is also extreme variation in practice in route of administration (oral vs prolonged IV therapy) in patients being discharged from the hospital with osteomyelitis.[3, 4] The most recent Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines do not clearly state when transition to oral antibiotics may be safe. Specifically, they state that if patients are stable and without ongoing bacteremia, they can transition to oral therapy to complete a 4‐ to 6‐week course.[5]

WHY LONG‐TERM PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS MAY NOT BE SUPERIOR

The use of PICC lines has increased substantially in recent years. This has led to an increasing awareness of complications associated with PICC lines. As a result, guidelines for the appropriate use of PICC lines have been established in adults by collaborators at the University of Michigan.[6] Mounting evidence has called into question whether longer parenteral therapy is truly a more conservative or safer approach for the treatment of osteomyelitis.[3, 4, 7, 8, 9] Providing antibiotics via a PICC line in both the inpatient and outpatient settings may not be as benign as once accepted and may not improve outcomes in osteomyelitis as expected.

WHEN TO CONSIDER PROLONGED PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS

The studies indicating the safe transition to oral antibiotics discussed above all excluded children with certain comorbid conditions. Although this varied from study to study, exclusions were as general in some as not previously healthy, and others were as specific as hematologic malignancies, immunocompromised states, sickle cell disease, malabsorption, and penetrating injuries. Also, although we know blood cultures obtained in children with osteomyelitis are positive in only approximately half of the patients,[19] the studies cited do not contain information for their study populations regarding the duration of bacteremia or endovascular complications, such as septic thrombophlebitis, which are well described in the literature.[20, 21] There are limited data on optimal treatment of children with prolonged bacteremia and endovascular complications. Because studies generally involved previously healthy children and do not specifically address these potential complications, the safety of early oral transition in complicated cases is not clear. The current IDSA and Red Book Committee on Infectious Diseases recommend intravenous therapy for bacteremia and endovascular infections with methicillin‐resistant S aureus.[5, 22] Clinical judgement should be used when treating children with comorbid illnesses who experience persistent bacteremia >48 hours, or who have endovascular complications.

WHAT YOU SHOULD DO INSTEAD

For children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis who are either culture negative and improve on empiric therapy, or who have culture results (blood or tissue) that are susceptible to a reasonable oral antibiotic agent and who have clinical improvement on initial IV antibiotic therapy, a growing body of evidence indicates that the benefit of early transition to oral antibiotics outweighs the risks of continuing with parenteral therapy. Discharging children on oral antibiotics does not increase their risk of treatment failure but seems to decrease the risk of therapy‐associated complications, including increased healthcare utilization with return visits to the emergency department or the hospital. The possible exceptions to early transition to enteral antibiotics are prolonged bacteremia or endovascular infection, though there are insufficient data in the literature indicating benefits or risks of one administration route over the other.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Previously healthy children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis, without endovascular complications, should be transitioned to enteral antibiotics when they are showing signs of clinical improvement, as defined by: resolution of fever, improving physical exam, ability to take oral medications, and decreasing C‐reactive protein.
2. The choice of oral antibiotics should be based on the organism's antibiotic susceptibility. If cultures are negative and the child has improved on empiric IV therapy, transition to an oral regimen with similar spectrum is acceptable.
3. Patients with acute osteomyelitis should have close follow‐up after discharge from the hospital, within 1 to 2 weeks, to ensure continued improvement on therapy.

CONCLUSION

Early transition to oral antibiotics should be used in children with acute, uncomplicated osteomyelitis. A growing body of evidence shows that early transition to oral antibiotics does not increase the risk of treatment failure and can obviate the need for an outpatient PICC line. Oral antibiotics do not carry the risk of potential complications and complexity that are inherent in outpatient parenteral therapy. The transition to oral therapy should occur prior to discharge from the hospital after clinical improvement. Close follow‐up is essential to ensure successful treatment in children with acute osteomyelitis.

Disclosure: Nothing to report.

Do you think this is a low‐value practice? Is this truly a Thing We Do for No Reason? Share what you do in your practice and join in the conversation online by retweeting it on Twitter (#TWDFNR) and liking it on Facebook. We invite you to propose ideas for other Things We Do for No Reason topics by emailing TWDFNR@hospitalmedicine.org.

The Things We Do for No Reason (TWDFNR) series reviews practices which have become common parts of hospital care but which may provide little value to our patients. Practices reviewed in the TWDFNR series do not represent black and white conclusions or clinical practice standards, but are meant as a starting place for research and active discussions among hospitalists and patients. We invite you to be part of that discussion. https://www.choosingwisely.org/

A previously healthy 6‐year‐old boy presented to the emergency room with 3 days of right lower leg pain and fevers up to 102F. The leg pain had progressed until he refused to walk. The patient and family did not recall any trauma to the leg. In the emergency department, he had a blood culture drawn. Because he had elevated inflammatory markers and a negative x‐ray of his right leg, a magnetic resonance imaging scan of the right leg was obtained that revealed right tibial osteomyelitis. He was taken to the operating room for debridement. After obtaining blood and bone cultures, he was started on intravenous (IV) vancomycin. His blood and surgical cultures grew methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus, sensitive to clindamycin. Subsequent blood cultures were negative, and his inflammatory markers trended down shortly after starting therapy. As he clinically improved, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) was placed, and he was discharged home to complete a 6‐week course of IV vancomycin.

BACKGROUND

Osteoarticular infections (osteomyelitis and septic arthritis) are common problems in the pediatric population, affecting 1/2000 children annually and accounting for approximately 1% of all pediatric hospitalizations.[1, 2] Osteomyelitis can occur in children of all ages and usually requires hospitalization for diagnosis and initial management. The most common mechanism of infection in children is hematogenous inoculation of the bone during an episode of bacteremia (acute hematogenous osteomyelitis), particularly in young children, due to the highly vascular nature of the developing bone. Long bones, such as the femur, tibia, and humerus, are most commonly involved. Treatment of acute osteomyelitis requires prolonged administration of antimicrobial agents. Inadequately treated osteomyelitis can result in progression to chronic infection and loss of function of the affected bone.[3]

WHY YOU MIGHT THINK PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS AT DISCHARGE IS SUPERIOR TO ENTERAL THERAPY

In the United States, a large proportion of children with hematogenous osteomyelitis are discharged from the hospital with long‐term parenteral intravenous antibiotics through a PICC line.[3] The medical community historically favored parenteral therapy for young children with serious bacterial infections given concerns regarding impaired enteral absorption. As a result, children with osteomyelitis were initially stabilized in the hospital and discharged with parenteral therapy through a PICC line to continue or complete care, even when the organism was susceptible to a viable oral alternative such as clindamycin or cephalexin. Recommendations regarding the safety and timing to transition to oral antibiotics have been lacking. There is also extreme variation in practice in route of administration (oral vs prolonged IV therapy) in patients being discharged from the hospital with osteomyelitis.[3, 4] The most recent Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines do not clearly state when transition to oral antibiotics may be safe. Specifically, they state that if patients are stable and without ongoing bacteremia, they can transition to oral therapy to complete a 4‐ to 6‐week course.[5]

WHY LONG‐TERM PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS MAY NOT BE SUPERIOR

The use of PICC lines has increased substantially in recent years. This has led to an increasing awareness of complications associated with PICC lines. As a result, guidelines for the appropriate use of PICC lines have been established in adults by collaborators at the University of Michigan.[6] Mounting evidence has called into question whether longer parenteral therapy is truly a more conservative or safer approach for the treatment of osteomyelitis.[3, 4, 7, 8, 9] Providing antibiotics via a PICC line in both the inpatient and outpatient settings may not be as benign as once accepted and may not improve outcomes in osteomyelitis as expected.

WHEN TO CONSIDER PROLONGED PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS

The studies indicating the safe transition to oral antibiotics discussed above all excluded children with certain comorbid conditions. Although this varied from study to study, exclusions were as general in some as not previously healthy, and others were as specific as hematologic malignancies, immunocompromised states, sickle cell disease, malabsorption, and penetrating injuries. Also, although we know blood cultures obtained in children with osteomyelitis are positive in only approximately half of the patients,[19] the studies cited do not contain information for their study populations regarding the duration of bacteremia or endovascular complications, such as septic thrombophlebitis, which are well described in the literature.[20, 21] There are limited data on optimal treatment of children with prolonged bacteremia and endovascular complications. Because studies generally involved previously healthy children and do not specifically address these potential complications, the safety of early oral transition in complicated cases is not clear. The current IDSA and Red Book Committee on Infectious Diseases recommend intravenous therapy for bacteremia and endovascular infections with methicillin‐resistant S aureus.[5, 22] Clinical judgement should be used when treating children with comorbid illnesses who experience persistent bacteremia >48 hours, or who have endovascular complications.

WHAT YOU SHOULD DO INSTEAD

For children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis who are either culture negative and improve on empiric therapy, or who have culture results (blood or tissue) that are susceptible to a reasonable oral antibiotic agent and who have clinical improvement on initial IV antibiotic therapy, a growing body of evidence indicates that the benefit of early transition to oral antibiotics outweighs the risks of continuing with parenteral therapy. Discharging children on oral antibiotics does not increase their risk of treatment failure but seems to decrease the risk of therapy‐associated complications, including increased healthcare utilization with return visits to the emergency department or the hospital. The possible exceptions to early transition to enteral antibiotics are prolonged bacteremia or endovascular infection, though there are insufficient data in the literature indicating benefits or risks of one administration route over the other.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Previously healthy children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis, without endovascular complications, should be transitioned to enteral antibiotics when they are showing signs of clinical improvement, as defined by: resolution of fever, improving physical exam, ability to take oral medications, and decreasing C‐reactive protein.
2. The choice of oral antibiotics should be based on the organism's antibiotic susceptibility. If cultures are negative and the child has improved on empiric IV therapy, transition to an oral regimen with similar spectrum is acceptable.
3. Patients with acute osteomyelitis should have close follow‐up after discharge from the hospital, within 1 to 2 weeks, to ensure continued improvement on therapy.

CONCLUSION

Early transition to oral antibiotics should be used in children with acute, uncomplicated osteomyelitis. A growing body of evidence shows that early transition to oral antibiotics does not increase the risk of treatment failure and can obviate the need for an outpatient PICC line. Oral antibiotics do not carry the risk of potential complications and complexity that are inherent in outpatient parenteral therapy. The transition to oral therapy should occur prior to discharge from the hospital after clinical improvement. Close follow‐up is essential to ensure successful treatment in children with acute osteomyelitis.

Disclosure: Nothing to report.

Do you think this is a low‐value practice? Is this truly a Thing We Do for No Reason? Share what you do in your practice and join in the conversation online by retweeting it on Twitter (#TWDFNR) and liking it on Facebook. We invite you to propose ideas for other Things We Do for No Reason topics by emailing TWDFNR@hospitalmedicine.org.

The Things We Do for No Reason (TWDFNR) series reviews practices which have become common parts of hospital care but which may provide little value to our patients. Practices reviewed in the TWDFNR series do not represent black and white conclusions or clinical practice standards, but are meant as a starting place for research and active discussions among hospitalists and patients. We invite you to be part of that discussion. https://www.choosingwisely.org/

A previously healthy 6‐year‐old boy presented to the emergency room with 3 days of right lower leg pain and fevers up to 102F. The leg pain had progressed until he refused to walk. The patient and family did not recall any trauma to the leg. In the emergency department, he had a blood culture drawn. Because he had elevated inflammatory markers and a negative x‐ray of his right leg, a magnetic resonance imaging scan of the right leg was obtained that revealed right tibial osteomyelitis. He was taken to the operating room for debridement. After obtaining blood and bone cultures, he was started on intravenous (IV) vancomycin. His blood and surgical cultures grew methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus, sensitive to clindamycin. Subsequent blood cultures were negative, and his inflammatory markers trended down shortly after starting therapy. As he clinically improved, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) was placed, and he was discharged home to complete a 6‐week course of IV vancomycin.

BACKGROUND

Osteoarticular infections (osteomyelitis and septic arthritis) are common problems in the pediatric population, affecting 1/2000 children annually and accounting for approximately 1% of all pediatric hospitalizations.[1, 2] Osteomyelitis can occur in children of all ages and usually requires hospitalization for diagnosis and initial management. The most common mechanism of infection in children is hematogenous inoculation of the bone during an episode of bacteremia (acute hematogenous osteomyelitis), particularly in young children, due to the highly vascular nature of the developing bone. Long bones, such as the femur, tibia, and humerus, are most commonly involved. Treatment of acute osteomyelitis requires prolonged administration of antimicrobial agents. Inadequately treated osteomyelitis can result in progression to chronic infection and loss of function of the affected bone.[3]

WHY YOU MIGHT THINK PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS AT DISCHARGE IS SUPERIOR TO ENTERAL THERAPY

In the United States, a large proportion of children with hematogenous osteomyelitis are discharged from the hospital with long‐term parenteral intravenous antibiotics through a PICC line.[3] The medical community historically favored parenteral therapy for young children with serious bacterial infections given concerns regarding impaired enteral absorption. As a result, children with osteomyelitis were initially stabilized in the hospital and discharged with parenteral therapy through a PICC line to continue or complete care, even when the organism was susceptible to a viable oral alternative such as clindamycin or cephalexin. Recommendations regarding the safety and timing to transition to oral antibiotics have been lacking. There is also extreme variation in practice in route of administration (oral vs prolonged IV therapy) in patients being discharged from the hospital with osteomyelitis.[3, 4] The most recent Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines do not clearly state when transition to oral antibiotics may be safe. Specifically, they state that if patients are stable and without ongoing bacteremia, they can transition to oral therapy to complete a 4‐ to 6‐week course.[5]

WHY LONG‐TERM PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS MAY NOT BE SUPERIOR

The use of PICC lines has increased substantially in recent years. This has led to an increasing awareness of complications associated with PICC lines. As a result, guidelines for the appropriate use of PICC lines have been established in adults by collaborators at the University of Michigan.[6] Mounting evidence has called into question whether longer parenteral therapy is truly a more conservative or safer approach for the treatment of osteomyelitis.[3, 4, 7, 8, 9] Providing antibiotics via a PICC line in both the inpatient and outpatient settings may not be as benign as once accepted and may not improve outcomes in osteomyelitis as expected.

WHEN TO CONSIDER PROLONGED PARENTERAL ANTIBIOTICS

The studies indicating the safe transition to oral antibiotics discussed above all excluded children with certain comorbid conditions. Although this varied from study to study, exclusions were as general in some as not previously healthy, and others were as specific as hematologic malignancies, immunocompromised states, sickle cell disease, malabsorption, and penetrating injuries. Also, although we know blood cultures obtained in children with osteomyelitis are positive in only approximately half of the patients,[19] the studies cited do not contain information for their study populations regarding the duration of bacteremia or endovascular complications, such as septic thrombophlebitis, which are well described in the literature.[20, 21] There are limited data on optimal treatment of children with prolonged bacteremia and endovascular complications. Because studies generally involved previously healthy children and do not specifically address these potential complications, the safety of early oral transition in complicated cases is not clear. The current IDSA and Red Book Committee on Infectious Diseases recommend intravenous therapy for bacteremia and endovascular infections with methicillin‐resistant S aureus.[5, 22] Clinical judgement should be used when treating children with comorbid illnesses who experience persistent bacteremia >48 hours, or who have endovascular complications.

WHAT YOU SHOULD DO INSTEAD

For children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis who are either culture negative and improve on empiric therapy, or who have culture results (blood or tissue) that are susceptible to a reasonable oral antibiotic agent and who have clinical improvement on initial IV antibiotic therapy, a growing body of evidence indicates that the benefit of early transition to oral antibiotics outweighs the risks of continuing with parenteral therapy. Discharging children on oral antibiotics does not increase their risk of treatment failure but seems to decrease the risk of therapy‐associated complications, including increased healthcare utilization with return visits to the emergency department or the hospital. The possible exceptions to early transition to enteral antibiotics are prolonged bacteremia or endovascular infection, though there are insufficient data in the literature indicating benefits or risks of one administration route over the other.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Previously healthy children with acute hematogenous osteomyelitis, without endovascular complications, should be transitioned to enteral antibiotics when they are showing signs of clinical improvement, as defined by: resolution of fever, improving physical exam, ability to take oral medications, and decreasing C‐reactive protein.
2. The choice of oral antibiotics should be based on the organism's antibiotic susceptibility. If cultures are negative and the child has improved on empiric IV therapy, transition to an oral regimen with similar spectrum is acceptable.
3. Patients with acute osteomyelitis should have close follow‐up after discharge from the hospital, within 1 to 2 weeks, to ensure continued improvement on therapy.

CONCLUSION

Early transition to oral antibiotics should be used in children with acute, uncomplicated osteomyelitis. A growing body of evidence shows that early transition to oral antibiotics does not increase the risk of treatment failure and can obviate the need for an outpatient PICC line. Oral antibiotics do not carry the risk of potential complications and complexity that are inherent in outpatient parenteral therapy. The transition to oral therapy should occur prior to discharge from the hospital after clinical improvement. Close follow‐up is essential to ensure successful treatment in children with acute osteomyelitis.

Disclosure: Nothing to report.

Do you think this is a low‐value practice? Is this truly a Thing We Do for No Reason? Share what you do in your practice and join in the conversation online by retweeting it on Twitter (#TWDFNR) and liking it on Facebook. We invite you to propose ideas for other Things We Do for No Reason topics by emailing TWDFNR@hospitalmedicine.org.