Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS

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Are breast and pelvic exams necessary when prescribing hormonal contraception?

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Pelin Batur, MD, FACP, NCMP, CCD

Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS

No. According to 2013 guidelines of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),¹ there is little evidence of benefit for many of the tests commonly mandated by healthcare providers before prescribing hormonal contraception (pill, ring, patch). These tests include breast and pelvic examinations, screening for cervical and sexually transmitted infections, laboratory testing, and mammography.

Only a medical history and blood pressure measurement are needed before prescribing estrogen-containing contraceptives. Patients who have elevated blood pressure but have not been previously diagnosed with hypertension should be preferentially offered other forms of contraception to avoid an additional risk of stroke or myocardial infarction, such as progestin-only products and intrauterine devices (IUDs). Women with blood pressures between 140/90 and 160/100 mm Hg may use estrogen-containing contraceptives only if other options are not appropriate. The CDC guidelines further state that if a patient is unable to come to the office for blood pressure assessment, then a community reading reported by the patient may be used to guide decision-making.

IS A PELVIC EXAMINATION NEEDED?

A pelvic examination (cervical inspection and bimanual examination) will not affect decisions related to prescribing contraceptives, except when prescribing female barrier methods (diaphragm, cervical cap) or IUDs.

Based on a systematic review of the literature between 1946 and 2014, the American College of Physicians now recommends against a screening pelvic examination in asymptomatic, nonpregnant, adult women when a Papanicolaou test is not otherwise indicated.²

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) acknowledges that no current scientific evidence supports or refutes the need for an annual pelvic examination for an asymptomatic, low-risk patient. But ACOG supports pelvic examinations as a way to establish open communication with patients about sexual health and reproduction.³ ACOG also recommends an annual health visit for all women. Whether or not a pelvic examination is performed, women should be counseled annually about birth control and offered contraception.

Patients should also be encouraged to keep their preventive care up-to-date, including cervical cancer screening with a Papanicolaou test or a human papillomavirus test (or both) at appropriate intervals, especially if the patient has cervical abnormalities requiring follow-up. However, falling behind on preventive care should not be a barrier to obtaining contraception.

IMPROVING ADHERENCE, DECREASING UNINTENDED PREGNANCY

One goal of the CDC’s 2013 guidelines was to remove unnecessary barriers to women’s access to contraceptives. In the United States, half of all pregnancies are unintended, and almost half of unintended pregnancies lead to abortion.⁴ Only half of women who have had an abortion used any contraceptive method within the last month.⁵ This suggests high levels of unprotected and underprotected sex.

For most patients, several national societies now recommend long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods, which include IUDs and progestin-only arm implants, because they have lower failure rates in a real-world setting.^1,6,7 LARC methods offer the advantage of the patient’s not having to remember to take, apply, or insert the contraceptive (ie, they are worry-free), and of not having to rely on a yearly appointment for refills.

Emergency contraception taken orally should be offered without an office visit

The Contraceptive CHOICE Project⁸ was a large prospective cohort study that assessed the impact of offering contraception free of charge in St. Louis, Missouri. Most of the 9,256 women who participated selected a LARC method.⁸ Those taking combined hormonal contraceptives (ie, birth control pill, patch, or ring) had a higher contraceptive failure rate than those using LARC methods (4.55 vs 0.27 per 100 participant-years; hazard ratio after adjustment for age, education, and unintended pregnancy history, 21.8; 95% confidence interval 13.7–34.9). The rate of unintended pregnancy in those under age 21 using combined hormonal contraceptives was almost twice as high as in older participants. Subsequent analyses showed that the abortion rates in the St. Louis region decreased to less than a quarter of the national average after the start of this project.⁹

Given that the failure rate with combined hormonal contraceptives averages 9% per year,¹ it is of the utmost importance that providers not limit access to patients’ prescriptions by requesting unnecessary visits and tests. If oral contraception is selected, women who are dispensed a full year’s supply of pill packs are more likely to continue with their contraceptive in the long term.¹⁰

THE PATIENT WITH A COMPLEX MEDICAL HISTORY

Limiting a woman’s contraceptive choices can increase her odds of experiencing an unintended pregnancy, which is associated with a far greater risk of adverse events than any contraceptive.¹¹ Thus, the CDC developed separate guidelines in 2010 to help determine all available options for the patient with medical comorbidities and with a concerning family history (ie, breast cancer, venous thromboembolism).¹² It can be helpful to consult the 2010 CDC medical eligibility criteria before offering contraception to these patients. Compared with the 2013 guidelines, which provide practical advice on how to use each contraceptive, the 2010 guidelines give guidance on when it is appropriate to prescribe each contraceptive—eg, which contraceptives are preferred based on a patient’s risk factors, medical history, and medication use. In addition to a two-page color summary chart of the 2010 medical eligibility criteria on the CDC website (https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/pdf/legal_summary-chart_english_final_tag508.pdf), a free mobile app is also available to guide decision-making.¹³

Pregnancy should be ruled out before initiating any contraceptive. This can be done through a detailed history. The six-item checklist in Table 1 has a 99.8% negative predictive value, so healthcare providers may be confident that a woman is not pregnant if pregnancy is excluded based on this history.¹⁴ A pregnancy test is needed in those who test positive on the checklist if they wish to start a LARC method such as an IUD or a progestin-only arm implant. However, because the test has a high false-positive rate, initiation of shorter-acting methods such as combined hormonal contraceptives should not be delayed on the basis of a positive checklist screen alone.¹

Emergency contraception taken orally should be offered without an office visit, as its short duration of use allows women with traditional contraindications to hormonal contraceptives to safely use this birth control method.^1,12 Because all emergency contraceptives must be used within 5 days of intercourse (the earlier the better), unnecessary office visits delay access and effectiveness.

Although a levonorgestrel-based emergency contraceptive is available over the counter, ulipristal acetate is more effective, especially in women who are overweight.¹⁵ A copper IUD placed within 5 days of intercourse is the most effective form of emergency contraception¹⁵ but requires an office visit. This method is an option for most women but should be strongly considered for women at highest risk of pregnancy (previous unintended pregnancy, intercourse at midcycle, obesity).

In summary, most women may safely begin their hormonal contraceptive with a detailed medical history alone, without additional office visits, examinations, or screening tests.

References

Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). US selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013; 62:1–60.
Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Harris R, et al; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians. Screening pelvic examination in adult women: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 2014; 161:67–72.
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice advisory on annual pelvic examination recommendations; 2014. www.acog.org/About-ACOG/News-Room/Practice-Advisories/ACOG-Practice-Advisory-on-Annual-Pelvic-Examination-Recommendations. Accessed September 8, 2015.
Finer LB, Zolna MR. Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006. Contraception 2011; 84:478–485.
Jones RK, Darroch JE, Henshaw SK. Contraceptive use among US women having abortions in 2000-2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2002; 34:294–303.
Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women. Committee opinion no. 615: access to contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 125:250–255.
Committee on Adolescent Health Care. Committee opinion no. 598: the initial reproductive health visit. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123:1143–1147.
Winner B, Peipert JF, Zhao Q, et al. Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception. N Engl J Med 2012; 366:1998–2007.
Secura GM, Madden T, McNicholas C, et al. Provision of no-cost, long-acting contraception and teenage pregnancy. N Engl J Med 2014; 371:1316–1323.
Committee on Gynecologic Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Over-the-counter access to oral contraceptives. Committee opinion no 544. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120:1527–1531.
Committee on Gynecologic Practice. ACOG committee opinion number 540: risk of venous thromboembolism among users of drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive pills. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120:1239–1242.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). US medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010; 59:1–86.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). United States medical eligibility criteria (US MEC) for contraceptive use, 2010. www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/usmec.htm. Accessed September 8, 2015.
Min J, Buckel C, Secura GM, Peipert JF, Madden T. Performance of a checklist to exclude pregnancy at the time of contraceptive initiation among women with a negative urine pregnancy test. Contraception 2015; 91:80–84.
Batur P. Emergency contraception: separating fact from fiction. Cleve Clin J Med 2012; 79:771–776.

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Pelin Batur, MD, NCMP, CCD
Education Director, Primary Care Women’s Health, Cleveland Clinic; Assistant Professor of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, OH

Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS
Director, The University of Texas Medical Branch Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Women’s Health; Ruth Hartgraves Chair in Obstetrics and Gynecology; Professor, Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston

Address: Pelin Batur, MD, NCMP, CCD, Primary Care Women’s Health, Independence Family Health Center, 5001 Rockside Road, IN30, Independence, OH 44131; e-mail: baturp@ccf.org

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contraception, birth control, oral contraceptives, hormonal contraceptives, breast examination, pelvic examination, Pelin Batur, Abbey Berenson

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Author(s)

Pelin Batur, MD, FACP, NCMP, CCD

Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS

Author(s)

Pelin Batur, MD, FACP, NCMP, CCD

Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS

Click for Credit Link

http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/online/journal/10_October-2015/0531393

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http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/online/journal/10_October-2015/0531393

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Pelin Batur, MD, NCMP, CCD
Education Director, Primary Care Women’s Health, Cleveland Clinic; Assistant Professor of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, OH

Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS
Director, The University of Texas Medical Branch Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Women’s Health; Ruth Hartgraves Chair in Obstetrics and Gynecology; Professor, Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston

Address: Pelin Batur, MD, NCMP, CCD, Primary Care Women’s Health, Independence Family Health Center, 5001 Rockside Road, IN30, Independence, OH 44131; e-mail: baturp@ccf.org

Author and Disclosure Information

Pelin Batur, MD, NCMP, CCD
Education Director, Primary Care Women’s Health, Cleveland Clinic; Assistant Professor of Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, OH

Abbey B. Berenson, MD, PhD, MMS
Director, The University of Texas Medical Branch Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Women’s Health; Ruth Hartgraves Chair in Obstetrics and Gynecology; Professor, Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Department of Pediatrics, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston

Address: Pelin Batur, MD, NCMP, CCD, Primary Care Women’s Health, Independence Family Health Center, 5001 Rockside Road, IN30, Independence, OH 44131; e-mail: baturp@ccf.org

Article PDF

Batur_BreastAndPelvicExams.pdf

Article PDF

Batur_BreastAndPelvicExams.pdf

No. According to 2013 guidelines of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),¹ there is little evidence of benefit for many of the tests commonly mandated by healthcare providers before prescribing hormonal contraception (pill, ring, patch). These tests include breast and pelvic examinations, screening for cervical and sexually transmitted infections, laboratory testing, and mammography.

Only a medical history and blood pressure measurement are needed before prescribing estrogen-containing contraceptives. Patients who have elevated blood pressure but have not been previously diagnosed with hypertension should be preferentially offered other forms of contraception to avoid an additional risk of stroke or myocardial infarction, such as progestin-only products and intrauterine devices (IUDs). Women with blood pressures between 140/90 and 160/100 mm Hg may use estrogen-containing contraceptives only if other options are not appropriate. The CDC guidelines further state that if a patient is unable to come to the office for blood pressure assessment, then a community reading reported by the patient may be used to guide decision-making.

IS A PELVIC EXAMINATION NEEDED?

A pelvic examination (cervical inspection and bimanual examination) will not affect decisions related to prescribing contraceptives, except when prescribing female barrier methods (diaphragm, cervical cap) or IUDs.

Based on a systematic review of the literature between 1946 and 2014, the American College of Physicians now recommends against a screening pelvic examination in asymptomatic, nonpregnant, adult women when a Papanicolaou test is not otherwise indicated.²

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) acknowledges that no current scientific evidence supports or refutes the need for an annual pelvic examination for an asymptomatic, low-risk patient. But ACOG supports pelvic examinations as a way to establish open communication with patients about sexual health and reproduction.³ ACOG also recommends an annual health visit for all women. Whether or not a pelvic examination is performed, women should be counseled annually about birth control and offered contraception.

Patients should also be encouraged to keep their preventive care up-to-date, including cervical cancer screening with a Papanicolaou test or a human papillomavirus test (or both) at appropriate intervals, especially if the patient has cervical abnormalities requiring follow-up. However, falling behind on preventive care should not be a barrier to obtaining contraception.

IMPROVING ADHERENCE, DECREASING UNINTENDED PREGNANCY

One goal of the CDC’s 2013 guidelines was to remove unnecessary barriers to women’s access to contraceptives. In the United States, half of all pregnancies are unintended, and almost half of unintended pregnancies lead to abortion.⁴ Only half of women who have had an abortion used any contraceptive method within the last month.⁵ This suggests high levels of unprotected and underprotected sex.

For most patients, several national societies now recommend long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods, which include IUDs and progestin-only arm implants, because they have lower failure rates in a real-world setting.^1,6,7 LARC methods offer the advantage of the patient’s not having to remember to take, apply, or insert the contraceptive (ie, they are worry-free), and of not having to rely on a yearly appointment for refills.

Emergency contraception taken orally should be offered without an office visit

The Contraceptive CHOICE Project⁸ was a large prospective cohort study that assessed the impact of offering contraception free of charge in St. Louis, Missouri. Most of the 9,256 women who participated selected a LARC method.⁸ Those taking combined hormonal contraceptives (ie, birth control pill, patch, or ring) had a higher contraceptive failure rate than those using LARC methods (4.55 vs 0.27 per 100 participant-years; hazard ratio after adjustment for age, education, and unintended pregnancy history, 21.8; 95% confidence interval 13.7–34.9). The rate of unintended pregnancy in those under age 21 using combined hormonal contraceptives was almost twice as high as in older participants. Subsequent analyses showed that the abortion rates in the St. Louis region decreased to less than a quarter of the national average after the start of this project.⁹

Given that the failure rate with combined hormonal contraceptives averages 9% per year,¹ it is of the utmost importance that providers not limit access to patients’ prescriptions by requesting unnecessary visits and tests. If oral contraception is selected, women who are dispensed a full year’s supply of pill packs are more likely to continue with their contraceptive in the long term.¹⁰

THE PATIENT WITH A COMPLEX MEDICAL HISTORY

Limiting a woman’s contraceptive choices can increase her odds of experiencing an unintended pregnancy, which is associated with a far greater risk of adverse events than any contraceptive.¹¹ Thus, the CDC developed separate guidelines in 2010 to help determine all available options for the patient with medical comorbidities and with a concerning family history (ie, breast cancer, venous thromboembolism).¹² It can be helpful to consult the 2010 CDC medical eligibility criteria before offering contraception to these patients. Compared with the 2013 guidelines, which provide practical advice on how to use each contraceptive, the 2010 guidelines give guidance on when it is appropriate to prescribe each contraceptive—eg, which contraceptives are preferred based on a patient’s risk factors, medical history, and medication use. In addition to a two-page color summary chart of the 2010 medical eligibility criteria on the CDC website (https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/pdf/legal_summary-chart_english_final_tag508.pdf), a free mobile app is also available to guide decision-making.¹³

Pregnancy should be ruled out before initiating any contraceptive. This can be done through a detailed history. The six-item checklist in Table 1 has a 99.8% negative predictive value, so healthcare providers may be confident that a woman is not pregnant if pregnancy is excluded based on this history.¹⁴ A pregnancy test is needed in those who test positive on the checklist if they wish to start a LARC method such as an IUD or a progestin-only arm implant. However, because the test has a high false-positive rate, initiation of shorter-acting methods such as combined hormonal contraceptives should not be delayed on the basis of a positive checklist screen alone.¹

Emergency contraception taken orally should be offered without an office visit, as its short duration of use allows women with traditional contraindications to hormonal contraceptives to safely use this birth control method.^1,12 Because all emergency contraceptives must be used within 5 days of intercourse (the earlier the better), unnecessary office visits delay access and effectiveness.

Although a levonorgestrel-based emergency contraceptive is available over the counter, ulipristal acetate is more effective, especially in women who are overweight.¹⁵ A copper IUD placed within 5 days of intercourse is the most effective form of emergency contraception¹⁵ but requires an office visit. This method is an option for most women but should be strongly considered for women at highest risk of pregnancy (previous unintended pregnancy, intercourse at midcycle, obesity).

In summary, most women may safely begin their hormonal contraceptive with a detailed medical history alone, without additional office visits, examinations, or screening tests.

No. According to 2013 guidelines of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),¹ there is little evidence of benefit for many of the tests commonly mandated by healthcare providers before prescribing hormonal contraception (pill, ring, patch). These tests include breast and pelvic examinations, screening for cervical and sexually transmitted infections, laboratory testing, and mammography.

Only a medical history and blood pressure measurement are needed before prescribing estrogen-containing contraceptives. Patients who have elevated blood pressure but have not been previously diagnosed with hypertension should be preferentially offered other forms of contraception to avoid an additional risk of stroke or myocardial infarction, such as progestin-only products and intrauterine devices (IUDs). Women with blood pressures between 140/90 and 160/100 mm Hg may use estrogen-containing contraceptives only if other options are not appropriate. The CDC guidelines further state that if a patient is unable to come to the office for blood pressure assessment, then a community reading reported by the patient may be used to guide decision-making.

IS A PELVIC EXAMINATION NEEDED?

A pelvic examination (cervical inspection and bimanual examination) will not affect decisions related to prescribing contraceptives, except when prescribing female barrier methods (diaphragm, cervical cap) or IUDs.

Based on a systematic review of the literature between 1946 and 2014, the American College of Physicians now recommends against a screening pelvic examination in asymptomatic, nonpregnant, adult women when a Papanicolaou test is not otherwise indicated.²

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) acknowledges that no current scientific evidence supports or refutes the need for an annual pelvic examination for an asymptomatic, low-risk patient. But ACOG supports pelvic examinations as a way to establish open communication with patients about sexual health and reproduction.³ ACOG also recommends an annual health visit for all women. Whether or not a pelvic examination is performed, women should be counseled annually about birth control and offered contraception.

Patients should also be encouraged to keep their preventive care up-to-date, including cervical cancer screening with a Papanicolaou test or a human papillomavirus test (or both) at appropriate intervals, especially if the patient has cervical abnormalities requiring follow-up. However, falling behind on preventive care should not be a barrier to obtaining contraception.

IMPROVING ADHERENCE, DECREASING UNINTENDED PREGNANCY

One goal of the CDC’s 2013 guidelines was to remove unnecessary barriers to women’s access to contraceptives. In the United States, half of all pregnancies are unintended, and almost half of unintended pregnancies lead to abortion.⁴ Only half of women who have had an abortion used any contraceptive method within the last month.⁵ This suggests high levels of unprotected and underprotected sex.

For most patients, several national societies now recommend long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) methods, which include IUDs and progestin-only arm implants, because they have lower failure rates in a real-world setting.^1,6,7 LARC methods offer the advantage of the patient’s not having to remember to take, apply, or insert the contraceptive (ie, they are worry-free), and of not having to rely on a yearly appointment for refills.

Emergency contraception taken orally should be offered without an office visit

The Contraceptive CHOICE Project⁸ was a large prospective cohort study that assessed the impact of offering contraception free of charge in St. Louis, Missouri. Most of the 9,256 women who participated selected a LARC method.⁸ Those taking combined hormonal contraceptives (ie, birth control pill, patch, or ring) had a higher contraceptive failure rate than those using LARC methods (4.55 vs 0.27 per 100 participant-years; hazard ratio after adjustment for age, education, and unintended pregnancy history, 21.8; 95% confidence interval 13.7–34.9). The rate of unintended pregnancy in those under age 21 using combined hormonal contraceptives was almost twice as high as in older participants. Subsequent analyses showed that the abortion rates in the St. Louis region decreased to less than a quarter of the national average after the start of this project.⁹

Given that the failure rate with combined hormonal contraceptives averages 9% per year,¹ it is of the utmost importance that providers not limit access to patients’ prescriptions by requesting unnecessary visits and tests. If oral contraception is selected, women who are dispensed a full year’s supply of pill packs are more likely to continue with their contraceptive in the long term.¹⁰

THE PATIENT WITH A COMPLEX MEDICAL HISTORY

Limiting a woman’s contraceptive choices can increase her odds of experiencing an unintended pregnancy, which is associated with a far greater risk of adverse events than any contraceptive.¹¹ Thus, the CDC developed separate guidelines in 2010 to help determine all available options for the patient with medical comorbidities and with a concerning family history (ie, breast cancer, venous thromboembolism).¹² It can be helpful to consult the 2010 CDC medical eligibility criteria before offering contraception to these patients. Compared with the 2013 guidelines, which provide practical advice on how to use each contraceptive, the 2010 guidelines give guidance on when it is appropriate to prescribe each contraceptive—eg, which contraceptives are preferred based on a patient’s risk factors, medical history, and medication use. In addition to a two-page color summary chart of the 2010 medical eligibility criteria on the CDC website (https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/pdf/legal_summary-chart_english_final_tag508.pdf), a free mobile app is also available to guide decision-making.¹³

Pregnancy should be ruled out before initiating any contraceptive. This can be done through a detailed history. The six-item checklist in Table 1 has a 99.8% negative predictive value, so healthcare providers may be confident that a woman is not pregnant if pregnancy is excluded based on this history.¹⁴ A pregnancy test is needed in those who test positive on the checklist if they wish to start a LARC method such as an IUD or a progestin-only arm implant. However, because the test has a high false-positive rate, initiation of shorter-acting methods such as combined hormonal contraceptives should not be delayed on the basis of a positive checklist screen alone.¹

Emergency contraception taken orally should be offered without an office visit, as its short duration of use allows women with traditional contraindications to hormonal contraceptives to safely use this birth control method.^1,12 Because all emergency contraceptives must be used within 5 days of intercourse (the earlier the better), unnecessary office visits delay access and effectiveness.

Although a levonorgestrel-based emergency contraceptive is available over the counter, ulipristal acetate is more effective, especially in women who are overweight.¹⁵ A copper IUD placed within 5 days of intercourse is the most effective form of emergency contraception¹⁵ but requires an office visit. This method is an option for most women but should be strongly considered for women at highest risk of pregnancy (previous unintended pregnancy, intercourse at midcycle, obesity).

In summary, most women may safely begin their hormonal contraceptive with a detailed medical history alone, without additional office visits, examinations, or screening tests.

References

Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). US selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013; 62:1–60.
Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Harris R, et al; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians. Screening pelvic examination in adult women: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 2014; 161:67–72.
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice advisory on annual pelvic examination recommendations; 2014. www.acog.org/About-ACOG/News-Room/Practice-Advisories/ACOG-Practice-Advisory-on-Annual-Pelvic-Examination-Recommendations. Accessed September 8, 2015.
Finer LB, Zolna MR. Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006. Contraception 2011; 84:478–485.
Jones RK, Darroch JE, Henshaw SK. Contraceptive use among US women having abortions in 2000-2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2002; 34:294–303.
Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women. Committee opinion no. 615: access to contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 125:250–255.
Committee on Adolescent Health Care. Committee opinion no. 598: the initial reproductive health visit. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123:1143–1147.
Winner B, Peipert JF, Zhao Q, et al. Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception. N Engl J Med 2012; 366:1998–2007.
Secura GM, Madden T, McNicholas C, et al. Provision of no-cost, long-acting contraception and teenage pregnancy. N Engl J Med 2014; 371:1316–1323.
Committee on Gynecologic Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Over-the-counter access to oral contraceptives. Committee opinion no 544. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120:1527–1531.
Committee on Gynecologic Practice. ACOG committee opinion number 540: risk of venous thromboembolism among users of drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive pills. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120:1239–1242.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). US medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010; 59:1–86.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). United States medical eligibility criteria (US MEC) for contraceptive use, 2010. www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/usmec.htm. Accessed September 8, 2015.
Min J, Buckel C, Secura GM, Peipert JF, Madden T. Performance of a checklist to exclude pregnancy at the time of contraceptive initiation among women with a negative urine pregnancy test. Contraception 2015; 91:80–84.
Batur P. Emergency contraception: separating fact from fiction. Cleve Clin J Med 2012; 79:771–776.

References

Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). US selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013; 62:1–60.
Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Harris R, et al; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians. Screening pelvic examination in adult women: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 2014; 161:67–72.
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice advisory on annual pelvic examination recommendations; 2014. www.acog.org/About-ACOG/News-Room/Practice-Advisories/ACOG-Practice-Advisory-on-Annual-Pelvic-Examination-Recommendations. Accessed September 8, 2015.
Finer LB, Zolna MR. Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006. Contraception 2011; 84:478–485.
Jones RK, Darroch JE, Henshaw SK. Contraceptive use among US women having abortions in 2000-2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2002; 34:294–303.
Committee on Health Care for Underserved Women. Committee opinion no. 615: access to contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 125:250–255.
Committee on Adolescent Health Care. Committee opinion no. 598: the initial reproductive health visit. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123:1143–1147.
Winner B, Peipert JF, Zhao Q, et al. Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception. N Engl J Med 2012; 366:1998–2007.
Secura GM, Madden T, McNicholas C, et al. Provision of no-cost, long-acting contraception and teenage pregnancy. N Engl J Med 2014; 371:1316–1323.
Committee on Gynecologic Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Over-the-counter access to oral contraceptives. Committee opinion no 544. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120:1527–1531.
Committee on Gynecologic Practice. ACOG committee opinion number 540: risk of venous thromboembolism among users of drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive pills. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120:1239–1242.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). US medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010; 59:1–86.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). United States medical eligibility criteria (US MEC) for contraceptive use, 2010. www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/unintendedpregnancy/usmec.htm. Accessed September 8, 2015.
Min J, Buckel C, Secura GM, Peipert JF, Madden T. Performance of a checklist to exclude pregnancy at the time of contraceptive initiation among women with a negative urine pregnancy test. Contraception 2015; 91:80–84.
Batur P. Emergency contraception: separating fact from fiction. Cleve Clin J Med 2012; 79:771–776.